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Head of a person, of a bed, of a coin, of a cane
Head of a match, of a table, of an organization
Whereas in Russian different words have to be used: голова, сторона, головка but Russian word голова is not used in connection with “a bed” or “a coin”, but they have another meanings as “он парень с головой” (he is a bright lad), в первую голову (in the first place), погрузиться во что-либо с головой- to throw oneself into smth.
Thirdly, the meaning of any word depends to a great extent on the place it occupies in the set of semantically related words: its synonyms, the constituents of the lexical field the word belongs to other members of the word-family which the word enters.
Difference in the lexical meaning (or meanings) of correlated words accounts for the difference of their collocability in different languages. F: the English adjective new and the Russian adjective новый when taken in isolation are felt as correlated words as in a number of cases new stands for новый. новое платье – a new dress, новый год- New Year. In collocation with other nouns, however, the Russian adjective cannot be used in the same meaning in which the English word new is used. F: new potatoes-молодая картошка, new bread - свежий хлеб.
Different collocations correspond to a number of different words both in two languages. It means that Russian word may correspond to a number of English words – тонкая книга - a thin book, тонкая ирония - subtle irony, тонкая талия - slim waist. English word may correspond to a number of Russian words – to fill a lamp - заправлять лампу, to fill a pipe - набивать трубку, to fill a truck - загружать машину, to fill a gap - заполнять пробел.
But not only notional words but also function words in different languages are polysemantic and not co-extensive. F: the meanings of the Russian preposition До and its equivalents in the English language
он работал до 5 часов – till 5 o’clock
Это было до войны- before the war
Он дошел до угла- to the corner
Volume of vocabulary set of English and Russian doesn’t correspond to each other. Correlation of notions, phenomena may be given or expressed by relative words, in other language different root words or by phraseological units or free word combinations.
Semantic difference between languages is found in comparing their nominative units (words and word-combinations), namely in comparing systems of polysemantic words which correspond in isolated vocabulary meanings. Each from vocabulary meaning polysemantic noun Касса in English language coincides individual lexical item. F: железнодорожная касса- booking office, касса театра-box office, театральная касса-theatre agency, касса в магазине-cash register, касса в aвтобусе, трамвае-till, fare box (AE).
One more difference words translating from one language into another with their first meaning may not be corresponded in their subsidiary (second) meaning as in their stem of naming are another features. F: Russian word заяц- в переносном смысле безбилетный пассажир but in English language noun hare in their first meaning hasn’t any figurative meaning as in Russian.
Every language has its own reals or realities. Reals are the fragments of objective reality which is reflected in the results of experience in brain only of one nation. Examples of reality are events of social life, state and public places, national traditions and customs and also things and actions which are connected with everyday life of nations. Sometimes two languages have words which have similar forms, may be different only in pronunciation typical for languages. F: decade – Декада, conductor – кондуктор, post- почта, poet –поэт. But also cases when the form is same but meaning is different. F: operator-in Russian (a person who shoots the film)- снимающий фильм, in English operator is a person who works in telephone switchboard, diet- не всегда диета but also - пища, стол, institute, academician.
134. Give the difference between notional and functional words.
Notional words. They can stand alone and yet have meaning and form a complete utterance. They can name different objects of reality, the qualities of these objects and actions or the process in which they take part. They can also express the attitude of the speaker towards reality.
Form or functional words. They are empty words or auxiliaries are lexical units which are called words, although they do not confirm to the definition of the word because they are used only in combination with notional words or in reference to them. This group comprises auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions and relative adverbs.
135. Give the definition of word-family and illustrate with examples.
Lexical groups composed of words with semantically and phonemically identical root-morphemes are usually defined as word-families or word-clusters. The term itself implies close links between the members of the group. Such are word-families of the type: lead, leader, leadership; dark, darken, darkness; form, formal, formality and others. It should be noted that members of a word-family as a rule belong to different parts of speech and are joined together only by the identity of root-morphemes. In the word-families discussed above the root-morphemes are identical not only in meaning but also in sound-form. There are cases, however, when the sound-form of root-morphemes may be different, as for example in sun, sunny, solar; mouth, oral, orally; brother, brotherly, fraternal, etc.; their semantic similarity however, makes it possible to include them in a word-family. In such cases it is usual to speak of lexical suppletion, i.e. formation of related words of a word-family from phonemically different roots. As a rule in the word-families of this type we are likely to encounter etymologically different words, e.g. the words brother and mouth are of Germanic origin, whereas fraternal and oral can be easily traced back to Latin. We frequently find synonymic pairs of the type fatherly— paternal, brotherly—fraternal.
136. Give a brief account of the main characteristics of a word.
The object of Lexicology is a word and word-combinations or word-groups. When we study Lexicology we should research the word and word-combinations in different sides, for example, its origin, meaning or semantics, development, multilevel structure.
As the main object a word has many functions. The term “word” denotes the main lexical unit of a language resulting from the association of a group of sounds with a meaning. It is the smallest unit of a language which can stand alone as a complete utterance.
A word is a language unit has a particular sound complex, has a particular meaning, is capable of a particular grammatical employment and able to form a sentence by itself.
A word is a unit of speech which serves the purposes of human communication.
The definition of a word is one of the most difficult in linguistics because the simplest word has many different aspects. Being the central element of any language system the word is a sort of focus for the problems of phonology, lexicology, syntax, morphology and also for some other sciences that have to deal with language and speech, such as philosophy, psychology and probably quite a few other branches of knowledge. Any definition that was given to word is conditioned by the aims and interests of its author.
The complete correct definition of the word is a speech unit used for the purposes of communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, belong to grammatical employment and characterised by formal and semantic unity.
The modern approach to word studies is based on distinguishing between the external and internal structures of the word.
On Lexicology course we analyze the word according to three structures: the morphological, semantic, stylistic. There are several linguistic functions of a word: nominative, significative (polysemantic), expressive, communicative, descriptive, pragmatic.
137. Give the main differences between studying words syntagmatically and paradigmatically. 112) surakta bar
138. Give the situations that informal words used. 34) surakta bar
139. Give the situations that formal words used. 7) surakta bar
140. Explain the common features of colloquialisms and slang. 17) surakta bar
141. Explain the main features of dialect words. 34) suraktyn sonynda
142. Give the reasons that which type of learned words is especially suitable for verbal communication. 7) surakta bar
143. Give the accounts for the fact that English vocabulary contains such as immense number of words of foreign origin.
Though borrowed words undergo changes in the adopting language they preserve some of their former peculiarities for a comparatively long period. This makes it possible to work out some criteria for determining whether the word belongs to the borrowed element.
In some cases the pronunciation of the word (strange sounds, sound combinations, position of stress, etc.), its spelling and the correlation between sounds and letters are an indication of the foreign origin of the word. This is the case with waltz (G.),. psychology (Gr.), soufflé (Fr.), etc. The initial position of the sounds [v], [dз], [з] or of the letters x, j, z is a sure sign that the word has been borrowed, e.g. volcano (It.), vase (Fr.), vaccine (L.), jungle (Hindi), gesture (L.), giant (OFr.), zeal (L.), zero (Fr.), zinc (G.), etc.
The morphological structure of the word and its grammatical forms may also bear witness to the word being adopted from another language. Thus the suffixes in the words neurosis (Gr.) and violoncello (It.) betray the foreign origin of the words. The same is true of the irregular plural forms papyra (from papyrus, Gr.), pastorali (from pastorale, It.), beaux (from beau, Fr.), bacteria, (from bacterium, L.) and the like.
Last but not least is the lexical meaning of the word. Thus the concept denoted by the words ricksha(w), pagoda (Chin.) make us suppose that we deal with borrowings.
These criteria are not always helpful. Some early borrowings have become so thoroughly assimilated that they are unrecognisable without a historical analysis, e.g. chalk, mile (L.), ill, ugly (Scand.), enemy, car (Fr.), etc. It must also be taken into consideration that the closer the relation between the languages, the more difficult it is to distinguish borrowings.
Sometimes the form of the word and its meaning in Modern English enable us to tell the immediate source of borrowing. Thus if the digraph ch is sounded as [∫], the word is a late French borrowing (as in echelon, chauffeur, chef); if it stands for [k], it came through Greek (archaic, architect, chronology); if it is pronounced as [t∫], it is either an early-borrowing (chase, OFr.; cherry, L., OFr.; chime, L.), or a word of Anglo-Saxon origin (choose, child, chin).
144. Give examples of your own to show that affixes have meanings.
According to the role morphemes can be divided into roots and affixes. Roots are the words which express the lexical meaning of the word, they coincide with the stem of simple words. Affixes, when they stand alone, they don’t have meaning. But they change the word meaning when they are added to the roots. For ex: beauty- beautiful, child-childhood, etc.
145. Write about interrelationship between the meaning of a compound word and the meanings of its constituent parts.
Differential meaning is the semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing identical morphemes. In words consisting of two or more morphemes, one of the constituent morphemes always has differential meaning. In such words as, e. g., bookshelf, the morpheme -shelf serves to distinguish the word from other words containing the morpheme book-, e.g. from bookcase, book-counter and so on. In other compound words, e.g. notebook, the morpheme note- will be seen to possess the differential meaning which distinguishes notebook from exercisebook, copybook, etc. It should be clearly understood that denotational and differential meanings are not mutually exclusive. Naturally the morpheme -shelf in bookshelf possesses denotational meaning which is the dominant component of meaning. There are cases, however, when it is difficult or even impossible to assign any denotational meaning to the morpheme, e.g. cran- in cranberry, yet it clearly bears a relationship to the meaning of the word as a whole through the differential component (cf. cranberry and blackberry, gooseberry) which in this particular case comes to the fore. One of the disputable points of morphological analysis is whether such words as deceive, receive, perceive consist of two component morphemes.1 If we assume, however, that the morpheme -ceive may be singled out it follows that the meaning of the morphemes re-, per, de- is exclusively differential, as, at least synchronically, there is no denotational meaning proper to them.
146. Explain the productivity of shortenings and stylistic characteristics of it. 125) suraktyn jauaby
147. Write about the minor processes of word-building, describe them. 57) suraktyn jauaby
148. Define polysemy as a linguistic phenomenon. Illustrate your answer with your own examples. 3) surakta bar
149. Explain the widening and narrowing of meaning, give examples.
The word play suggests different notions to a child, a playwright, a footballer, a musician or a chess-player and has in their speech different semantic paradigms. The same applies to the noun cell as used by a biologist, an electrician, a nun or a representative of the law; or the word gas as understood by a chemist, a soldier, a housewife, a motorist or a miner.
In all the examples considered above a word which formerly represented a notion of a broader scope has come to render a notion of a narrower scope. When the meaning is specialised, the word can name fewer objects, i.e. have fewer referents. At the same time the content of the notion is being enriched, as it includes a greater number of relevant features by which the notion is characterised. Or, in other words, the word is now applicable to fewer things but tells us more about them. The reduction of scope accounts for the term “narrowing of the meaning” which is even more often used than the term “specialisation”. We shall avoid the term “narrowing", since it is somewhat misleading. Actually it is neither the meaning nor the notion, but the scope of the notion that is narrowed.
The process reverse to specialisation is termed generalisation and widening of meaning. In that case the scope of the new notion is wider than that of the original one (hence widening), whereas the content of the notion is poorer. In most cases generalisation is combined with a higher order of abstraction than in the notion expressed by the earlier meaning. The transition from a concrete meaning to an abstract one is a most frequent feature in the semantic history of words. The change may be explained as occasioned by situations in which not all the features of the notions rendered are of equal importance for the message. Thus, ready < OE ræde (a derivative of the verb ridan ‘to ride’) meant ‘prepared for a ride’. Fly originally meant ‘to move through the air with wings’; now it denotes any kind of movement in the air or outer space and also very quick movement in any medium. See also pirate, originally ‘one who robs on the sea’, by generalisation it came to mean ‘anyone who robs with violence’.
150. Give the distinctive features of the traditional classification of homonyms, give examples. 14) suraktyn jauaby