106. Define the basic problems of dictionary compiling. 2) suraktyn jauaby

107. Speak on three ways in which the word meanings are arranged in a dictionary.

The order of arrangement of meanings followed in learner’s dictionaries is usually empiric, that is beginning with the main meaning to minor ones. Besides the following principles of arrangement are considered proper for language learners: literal uses before figurative, general uses before special, common uses before rare and easily understandable uses before difficult. Each of these principles is subject to the limitation “other things being equal” and all are subject to the principle that that arrangement is best for any word which helps the learners most.

E.g. in Hornby’s entry for commit the first meaning is ‘perform’ (a crime, foolish act, etc.) and its primary meaning ‘entrust’ is given as its second meaning.

But this is not always the case. For instance, the first meaning of the word revolution given by Hornby is ‘act of revolving or journeying round’ and not ‘complete change, great reversal of conditions, esp. in methods of government’, which is more common nowadays. Thus the compilers preserve the historical order of meanings in this case.

In monolingual learner’s dictionaries the same types of definitions are used, as in ordinary monolingual explanatory word-books, but their proportion is different. Encyclopaedic definitions are usually used more rarely, the role of descriptive definitions is much greater.

Compare, for instance, the definition for coal taken from the Ladder Dictionary with that from COD given above.¹

coal n. a black, hard substance that burns and gives off heat.

It would be wrong to think however that the definitions in learner’s dictionaries are always less complete than in the dictionaries designed for native users. More often than not these definitions are not so condensed in form and they are more complete in content, because the compilers have to make up for the user’s possible inadequacy in command of the language and lack of knowledge of some realia.

In learner’s dictionaries cross-references are for the most part reduced to a minimum.

Compilers of learner’s dictionaries attach great importance to the language in which the definition is couched, the goal being to word them in the simplest terms that are consistent with accuracy. Some compilers see to it that the definitions are couched in language which is commoner and more familiar to the language learner than the words defined.

Some lexicographers select a special defining vocabulary held to be the commonest words in English or those first learnt by foreigners. For example, in the International Reader’s Dictionary the word-list of 24,000 items is defined within a vocabulary of 1490 words selected by M. West.

In some learner’s dictionaries pictorial material is widely used as a means of semantisation of the words listed. Pictures cannot only define the meanings of such nouns as dike, portico, domes, columns, brushes, etc., but sometimes also of adjectives, verbs and adverbs.

E.g. in Hornby’s dictionary, the definitions of the adjective concentrated, the verb clasp and the adverb abreast are illustrated with the pictures of concentrated circles, clasped hands, and boys walking three abreast.

108. Speak on the meanings on the words which are defined by means of four definitions.

Meaning is the inner form of the word. There are three main categories of definitions which may be referred to as : analytical or referential definition of meaning, functional or contextual definition of meaning, operational or information-oriented definition of meaning.

1) Analytical or referential definition of meaning seek to find out the essence of meaning establishing the interdependence between words of the objects or phenomena they denote. If we hear a sound-form a certain idea arises in our mind and the idea brings out a certain referent that exists in the reality. The dotted line suggests that there is no intermediate relation between word and referent, it is established only through the concept, because there are no objects or phenomena in the reality that predict a certain sound-form.

2) Functional or contextual definition of meaning seeks that the true meaning of a word is to found by observing what a man does with it not what he says about it, the proponents of functional approach to meaning define it as the use of the word in the language. It has been suggested that the meaning of a word is revealed by substituting different contexts. Here the meaning of a linguistic unit may be studied only through its relation to other linguistic units.

3) Operational or information-oriented definition of meaning seeks to define meaning through its role in the process of communication. They are more interested in how the words work, how the meaning works than what the meaning is. Meaning is defined as information conveyed from the speaker to the listener in the process of communication.

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109. Write about words of general use, literary layer of the vocabulary, neutral words.

Words differ not only in their emotive charge but also in their stylistic reference. Stylistically words can be roughly subdivided into literary, neutral and colloquial layers. The greater part of the literаrу layer of Modern English vocabulary are words of general use, possessing no specific stylistic reference and known as neutral words. Against the background of neutral words we can distinguish two major subgroups — standard colloquial words and literary or bookish words. This may be best illustrated by comparing words almost identical in their denotational meaning, e. g., ‘parent — father — dad’. In comparison with the word father which is stylistically neutral, dad stands out as colloquial and parent is felt as bookish. The stylistic reference of standard colloquial words is clearly observed when we compare them with their neutral synonyms, e.g. chum — friend, rot — nonsense, etc. This is also true of literary or bookish words, such as, e.g., to presume (cf. to suppose), to anticipate (cf. to expect) and others.

Literary (bookish) words are not stylistically homogeneous. Besides general-literary (bookish) words, e.g. harmony, calamity, alacrity, etc., we may single out various specific subgroups, namely: 1) terms or scientific words such as, e g., renaissance, genocide, teletype, etc.; 2) poetic words and archaisms such as, e.g., whilome — ‘formerly’, aught — ‘anything’, ere — ‘before’, albeit — ‘although’, fare — ‘walk’, etc., tarry — ‘remain’, nay — ‘no’; 3) barbarisms and foreign words, such as, e.g., bon mot — ‘a clever or witty saying’, apropos, faux pas, bouquet, etc.

110. Write about the classification of vocabulary according to form, give examples. 36) suraktyn jauaby. Homonyms is classification of vocabulary acc to form

111. Write about the classification of vocabulary according to meaning, give examples. 12) suraktyn jauaby

112. Give the difference between paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of words.

Intralinguistic relations of words are basically of two main types: syntagmatic and paradigmatic.

Syntagmatic relations define the meaning the word possesses when it is used in combination with other words in the flow of speech. For example, compare the meaning of the verb to get in He got a letter, He got tired, He got to London and He could not get the piano through the door.

Paradigmatic relations are those that exist between individual lexical items which make up one of the subgroups of vocabulary items, e.g. sets of synonyms, lexico-semantic groups, etc.

Paradigmatic relations define the word-meaning through its interrelation with other members of the subgroup in question. For example, the meaning of the verb to get can be fully understood only in comparison with other items of the synonymic set: get, obtain, receive, etc. Cf. He got a letter, he received a letter, he obtained a letter, etc. Comparing the sentences discussed above we may conclude that an item in a sentence can be usually substituted by one or more than one other items that have identical part-of-speech meaning and similar though not identical lexical meaning.

The difference in the type of subgroups the members of which are substitutable in the flow of speech is usually described as the difference between closed and open sets of lexical items. For example, any one of a number of personal pronouns may occur as the subject of a sentence and the overall sentence structure remains the same. These pronouns are strictly limited in number and therefore form a closed system in which to say he is to say not I, not you, etc. To some extent the meaning of he is defined by the other items in the system (cf., e.g., the English I, you, etc., and the Russian я, ты, вы, etc.).Thesets of items in which the choice is limited to a finite number of alternatives as here are described as closed systems.

The members of closed systems are strictly limited in number and no addition of new items is possible.

The sets in which the number of alternatives is practically infinite as they are continually being adapted to new requirements by the addition of new lexical items are described as open systems. Closed systems are traditionally considered to be the subject matter of grammar, open systems such as lexico-semantic fields, hyponymic, synonymic sets, etc.¹ are studied by lexicology.

113. List the problems of Lexicology and express your attitude.

The problems of Lexicology:

1. Word-formation

2. Semasiology and types of word meaning

3. Paradigmatic (synonymy and functional style) and syntagmatic relations of words

4. Phraseology

5. Lexicography. Types of dictionaries.

6. The study of vocabulary as a system.

The problem of word-building is associated with prevailing morphological word-structures and with processes of making new words. Semantics is the study of meaning. Modern approaches to this problem are characterized by two different levels of study: syntagmatic and paradigmatic. On the syntagmatic level, the semantic structure of the word is analysed in its linear relationships with neighbouring words in connected speech. In other words, the semantic characteristics of the word are observed, described and studied on the basis of its typical contexts. On the paradigmatic level, the word is studied in its relationships with other words in the vocabulary system. So, a word may be studied in comparison with other words of similar meaning. Phraseology is the branch of lexicology specializing in word-groups which are characterized by stability of structure and transferred meaning. One further important objective of lexicological studies is the study of the vocabulary of a language as a system. The vocabulary can be studied synchronically, that is, at a given stage of its development, or diachronically, that is, in the context of the processes through which it grew, developed and acquired its modern form. Lexicography is the branch of lexicology that deals with the problems of dictionary compiling.

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114. Give the difference between free word combinations and phraseological units.

Free word-groups are so called not because of any absolute freedom in using them but simply because they are each time built up a new in the speech process whereas idioms are used as ready-made units with fixed and constant structures. There are two major criteria for distinguishing between phraseological units and free word-groups. 1) structural; 2) semantic.

F: isn’t it rather carrying coals to Newcastle? This cargo ship is carrying coal to Liverpool.

Here we see the semantic difference of the two word-groups consisting of the same essential constituents. In the second sentence the free word-groups is used in the direct sense, the first context quite obviously has nothing to do either with coal or with transporting it, and the meaning of the whole word-group is smth entirely new and far removed from the current meanings of the constituents. Academician V.V.Vinogradov spoke of the semantic change in phraseological units as “a meaning resulting from a peculiar chemical combination of words”. In the traditional approach, phraseological units have been defined as word-groups conveying a single concept (in free word-groups each meaningful component stands for a separate concept). Most Russian scholars today accept the semantic criterion of distinguishing phraseological units from free word-groups as the major one and base their research work in the field of phraseology on the definition of a phraseological unit offered by professor A.V.Koonin, the leading authority on problems of English phraseology in our country: “a phraseological unit is a stable word-group characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning”. It means that the degree of semantic change in a phraseological unit may vary completely or partially. In actual fact the semantic change may affect either the whole word-group or only of its components. Partially changed meanings are not also the same as semi-fixed or non-phraseological word-groups. The term “idiom” is mostly applied to phraseological units with completely transferred meaning. There are many scholars who regard idioms as the essence of phraseology and the major focus of interest in phraseology research.

The structural criterion or structural invariability is an essential feature of phraseological units, though, some of them possess it to a lesser degree than others. This criterion finds expression in a number of restrictions. 1) restriction in substitution. As a rule, no word can be substituted for any meaningful component of a phraseological unit without destroying its sence, at the same time in free word-groups substitution does not present any dangers and does not lead to any serious consequences, all components can be changed; F: the ship (vessel) boat carries (transports, takes, brings) coal to (any part). 2) restriction in introducing any additional components into the structure of a phraseological unit. In the phraseological unit to carry coals to Newcastle no additional components can be introduced. In oral speech phraseological units mostly preserve their traditional structures and resist the introduction of additional components. 3) restriction in grammatical invariability. Students make mistakes if they use in the following phraseological unit the plural form of fault. F: to find fault with smb (we can’t say faults). It is a mistake in terms of the grammatical invariability of phraseological units. F: from head to foot (feet is mistake).

Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. Phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.

115. Give the difference between British and American English.

The so-called local dialects in the British Isles and in the USA are used only by the rural population and only for the purposes of oral communication. In both variants local distinctions are more marked in pronunciation, less conspicuous in vocabulary and insignificant in grammar. The existing cases of difference between the two variants are conveniently classified into:

1) cases where there are no equivalents in BE: drive-in – a cinema where you can see the film without getting out of your car or a shop where motorists buy things staying in the car.

2) cases where different words are used for the same denotation. F: can, candy, mailbox, movies, truck in the USA, and tin, sweets, pillar-box, pictures, lorry in England.

3. Cases where the semantic structure of a partially equivalent word is different. The word pavement means in the first place “covering of the street or the floor and the like made of asphalt, stones or some other material”. The derived meaning is in England “the footway at the side of the road”. The Americans use the noun sidewalk for this, while pavement with them means “the roadway”.

4. Cases where otherwise equivalent words are different in distribution. The verb ride in standard English is mostly combined with nouns as a horse, a bicycle, more seldom they say to ride on a bus. In AE combinations like a ride on the train, to ride in a boat are quite usual.

5. It sometimes happens that the same word is used in AE with some difference in emotional and stylistic colouring.

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There may be a marked difference in frequency characteristics. F: time-table in AE rarely, yielded its place to schedule.

116. Analyze the semantic change from the denotational point of view. 42) suraktyn basy, A change-ga dein

117. Analyze the semantic change from the connotational point of view. 42) suraktyn ortasy, A change dep bastalady

118. Speak about causes of semantic change. 41) suraktyn basy

119. Speak about nature of semantic change. 41) surakta bar

120. Speak about results of semantic change. 42) surak

121. State out the drawbacks of having polysemantic words in languages.

When we study about the semantic structure of the word, it is necessary to make a brief survey of another semantic phenomenon which is closely connected with it. It is generally known that most words have number of meanings. A word having several meanings is called polysemantic and the ability of words to have more than one meaning is described by the term polysemy. Most English words are polysemantic. The system of meanings of any polysemantic word develops gradually, mostly over the centuries as more and more new meanings are either added to old ones, or oust some of them. So complicated process of polysemy development involve both the appearance of new meanings and the loss of old ones. One of the most important drawbacks of polysemantic words is that there is sometimes a chance of misunderstanding when a word is used in a certain meaning but accepted by a listener or reader in another. That is why context is a powerful preventative against any misunderstanding of meanings. It leads us to the conclusion that context is a good and reliable key to the meaning of the word. In polysemantic words, however, we are faced not with the problem of analysis of individual meanings, but primarily with the problem of the interrelation and interdependence of the various meanings in the semantic structure of one and the same word.

122. Write about graphical, initial, middle abbrevations.

Distinction should be made between shortening which results in new lexical items and a specific type of shortening proper only to written speech resulting in numerous graphical abbreviations which are only signs representing words and word-groups of high frequency of occurrence in various spheres of human activity as for instance, RD for Road and St for Street in addresses on envelopes and in letters; tu for tube, aer for aerial in Radio Engineering literature, etc. English graphical abbreviations include rather numerous shortened ‘ variants of Latin and French words and word-groups, e.g.: i.e. (L. id est) — ‘that is’; R.S.V.P. (Fr. — Repondez s'il vous plait) — ‘reply please’, etc.

Graphical abbreviations are restricted in use to written speech, occurring only in various kinds of texts, articles, books, advertisements, letters, etc. In reading, many of them are substituted by the words and phrases that they represent, e.g. Dr. = doctor, Mr.=mister, Oct.= October, etc.; the abbreviations of Latin and French words and phrases are usually read as their English equivalents. It follows that graphical abbreviations cannot be considered new lexical vocabulary units.

It is only natural that in the course of language development some graphical abbreviations should gradually penetrate into the sphere of oral intercourse and, as a result, turn into self-contained lexical units used both in oral and written speech. That is the case, for instance, with a.m. ['ei'em] — ‘in the morning, before noon’; p.m. ['pi:'em] — ‘in the afternoon’; S.O.S. ['es ‘ou ‘es] (=Save Our Souls) — ‘urgent call for help’, etc.

Initial letters or syllables of a phrase, which may be pronounced differently a) as a succession of sounds denoted by the constituent letters forming a syllabic pattern, i.e. as regular words, e.g. UNO ['ju:nou] = United Nations Organisations; NATO ['neitou] = North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, UNESCO [ju:'neskou]; laser ['leisa] = = light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation; radar ['reidэ] = =radio detection and ranging; BMEWS ['bi:mju:z] = Ballistic Missile Early Warning System; b) as a succession of the alphabetical readings of the constituent letters as in, e.g., YCL ['wai’si:'el] = Young Communist League; BBC ['bi:'bi:’si:] = British Broadcasting Corporation; MP ['em'pi:] = Member of Parliament; SOS ['es'ou'es] = Save Our Souls.

123. Define the formation ways of conversion and give examples. 4) suraktyn jauaby

124. Define the formation ways of compound words and give examples. 8) suraktyn jauaby

125. Define the formation ways of shortenings and give examples.

Shortening is a comparatively new way of word-building has achieved a high degree of productivity, especially in American English. Shortenings are produced in two different ways. The first is to make a new word of syllable of the original word. The latter may lose its beginning (as in phone made from telephone, fence from defence), its ending (as in hols from holidays, vac from vacation, ad from advertisement) or both the beginning and ending (as flu from influenza, fridge from refrigerator).

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The second way of shortening is to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group: U.N.O., B.B.C., M.P. this type is called initial shortenings.

126. Define the formation ways of affixation and give examples. 56) surakta bar

127. Write about external and internal ways of vocabulary development.

The lexicology of present-day English, therefore, although having aims of its own, different from those of its historical counterpart, cannot be divorced from the latter. In what follows not only the present status of the English vocabulary is discussed: the description would have been sadly incomplete if we did not pay attention to the historical aspect of the problem — the ways and tendencies of vocabulary development.

Being aware of the difference between the synchronic approach involving also social and place variations, and diachronic approach we shall not tear them asunder, and, although concentrating mainly on the present state of the English vocabulary, we shall also have to consider its development. Much yet remains to be done in elucidating the complex problems and principles of this process before we can present a complete and accurate picture of the English vocabulary as a system, with specific peculiarities of its own, constantly developing and conditioned by the history of the English people and the structure of the language.

128. Give the characteristic features of dominant synonyms and illustrate with examples. 43) suraktyn jauaby

129. Formulate the aims and principles of contrastive analysis.

Contrastive methods or analysis is not the idea which is new but rather the systematization and the underlying principles. It is common knowledge that comparison is the basic principle in comparative philology.

The method comparison, contrastive we meet in different studies, not only on lexicology. F: contrastive linguistics, contrastive methodology, contrastive phraseology, contrastive culture studies. We should point out that contrastive methods in modern linguistics play an important role, because there are a lot of languages nowadays and the level of international relations, exchanges between countries, learning the foreign languages lead us to compare languages, culture, religion, investigations, values of two nations. According to these methods nowadays there are new directions in linguistics as ethnolinguistics, linguocultural studies, linguocountry studies and cross-cultural communication. They are considered to be new linguistic researches, new linguistic directions of the XXI century.

The aim of that method is to find out similarities it means common features of two languages and differences in both related and non-related languages. Contrastive analysis can be carried out at three linguistic levels: phonology, grammar (morphology and syntax) and lexis. Contrastive analysis is applied to reveal the features of sameness and difference in the lexical meaning and the semantic structure of correlated words in different languages.

130. Speak on the etymology of English words. 33) suraktyn jauaby

131. Speak on the reasons of appering contrastive methods.

Sources and reasons of appearing contrastive methods.

1. In fact contrastive analysis grew as the result of the practical demands of language teaching methodology where it was empirically shown that the errors which are made recurrently by foreign language students can be often traced back to the differences in structure between the target language and the language of the learner;

2. the level of language learning is increasing and it needs to have investigations of two languages. This naturally implies the necessity of a detailed comparison of the structure of a native and a target language which has been named contrastive analysis.

132. Speak on the reasons of borrowings and evaluate each of them. 15) suraktyn jauaby

133. Give the disadvantages of giving word for word translation of lexical items.

For every word in the mother tongue there is an exact equivalent in the foreign language. It is a belief which is reinforced by the bilingual dictionaries where single word translations are often offered. But every language classifies reality in its own way by means of vocabulary, first it should be born in mind that though objective reality exists outside human beings and irrespective of the language they speak.

Contrastive analysis also brings to light what can be labeled problem pairs, i.e. the words that denote two entries in one language and correspond to two different words in another language. F: часы in Russian and clock, watch in English, художник in Russian and artist, painter in English.

Each language contains words which cannot be translated directly from this language into another, then we will try to give word-for-word equivalence but firstly, that anything which can be said in one language can be translated more or less accurately into another, secondly, that correlated polysemantic words of different languages are as a rule not co-extensive. Polysemantic words in all languages may denote very different types of objects and yet all the meanings are considered by the native speakers to be obviously logical extensions of the basic meaning. F: to an Englishman it is self-evident that one should be able to use the word head to denote the following.

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