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B R I C S
strophic industry conditions created a series of reliability problem which brought
about a reaction from the state to reorganize the industry in 2013. The United Rock
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et and Space Corporation was formed as a joint-stock corporation by the govern-
ment in August 2013 to consolidate the Russian space sector. In 2014, Roskosmos
drafted the new 10-year Federal Space Program, FKP-2025.
For decades Russia’s space program has been primarily oriented towards
manned space flights, which comprised 58 percent of the space budget. This par
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tially explains the lack fo funding for other areas of the space industry, such as
satellite communication, remote mapping and deep space exploration.
Since NASA retired its space shuttle fleet in 2011, the Russian Soyuz spacecraft
has been the only means of transporting astronauts to the $150 billion International
Space Station (ISS). Though Russia may be overtaken by the United States in
commercial launches, Russia’s Soyuz spacecraft is the only means of reaching the
ISS until U.S. firms like Boeing and SpaceX begin launching manned ships in 2017.
Russia plans to continue using the ISS until 2024 and is planning to build its own
orbital outpost using the existing ISS modules
128
.
In January 2015, the Russian government announced a restructuring plan for its
space program Roscosmos along with the United Rocket and Space Corporation
were at halves with the responsibilities administered to them for space develop-
ment. . Now the two parts will be combined and retain the name Roscosmos, but
the new entity is described as a state corporation rather than an agency
129
.
In 1962 the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) was built in
India
. In 1969, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), a state-owned
space agency was launched in Bangalore.
ISRO has a number of achievements. India is in the list of countries to have
carried out deep space missions, and it was on its first such mission in 2008 that
its spacecraft Chandrayaan entered the moon’s orbit. In 2014 India became the
first country to enter Mars’ orbit on its first attempt. India has the biggest remote
sensing satellite network in the world. It is also among a select group of countries
that provide commercial satellite launch services — putting into space 67 satellites,
including 40 foreign satellites from 19 countries.
ISRO’s achievements in outer space have come largely on its own steam. Fol
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lowing nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998, several Indian scientific research institu
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tions, including ISRO, came under wide-ranging sanctions. These sanctions dealt
a huge setback to ISRO’s programs and ambitions as it found itself locked out of
Western technology. India was denied access to cryogenic engine technology, for
instance, which had severe implications for its Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle (GSLV) project. These sanctions worked for India’s benefit in the long run.
India was able to develop its own technology.
128
Russia to Build Its Own Orbital Station After 2024 URL: http://sputniknews.com/rus
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sia/20150224/1018706100.html#ixzz3bq7BYrAr
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Russia Reorganizes Space Program Again, Ostapenko Out — UPDATE URL: http://www.space
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policyonline.com/news/russia-reorganizes-space-program-again-ostapenko-out
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B R I C S
India’s satellite launching services have proved to be lucrative. Nevertheless,
ISRO needs to develop the capability to carry heavier satellites and into the geosta-
tionary orbit if it is keen to become a serious player in the multi-million dollar global
space launch business, which is currently dominated by companies in Europe and
China
130
.
China’s
space capabilities are ranked fourth in the world, and the gap between
the leading powers is narrowing, according to a report issued recently by a Chinese
research organization
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.
China’s space ambitions include taking a bigger share of the commercial sat
-
ellite-launch market, putting an unmanned rover on Mars by 2020, completing
a manned space by 2022 and possibly putting a person on the moon in the coming
decade. By 2030 China hopes to test what could be one of the world’s highest-
capacity rockets, the Long March 9. Currently work is nearly complete on China’s
fourth and most advanced launch facility Wenchang
132
.
The China National Space Administration (CNSA) is the national agency for
China to co-ordinate its space activities. In contrast to most other space agencies
worldwide, the organization is not involved with the International Space Station
and, in fact, has a small space station of its own. CNSA itself was formed in 1993,
a year after China started its own human space program. It developed a spacecraft
called Shenzhou, which relied on the Russian Soyuz spacecraft design but have
been modernized by Chinese engineers. China’s first space traveler, taikonaut
Yang Liwei, entered space alone on Oct. 15, 2003, aboard Shenzhou 5. Yang’s
flight marked China as the third country ever to independently launch a human into
space, after Russia and the United States.
China did a successful anti-satellite test on one of its own machines in 2007,
drawing the concern of international space authorities as a debris cloud of hun-
dreds of pieces spread into orbit. According to the U.S. Defense Department,
the May 2013 launch of a Chinese rocket was a test of a technology designed to
counter or destroy satellites in geosynchronous orbit, which threatens other states’
space capabilities.
South African
National Space Agency (SANSA) was founded in 2008 and
began operations two years later to develop a national space program and co-
ordinate existing space activities. Prior to the founding of SANSA, South African
space activities had been under the direction of the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research. In the 1980-s South Africa planned to launch its own military
reconnaissance satellite, but that program ended in 1994. Two satellites built by
South Africa were launched by the United States and Russia in 1999 and 2009,
130
India’s Impressive Space Program URL: http://thediplomat.com/2014/10/indias-impressive-
space-program/
131
China ranked 4th among world space powers URL: http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/China_
ranked_4th_among_world_space_powers_999.html
132
China National Space Administration: Facts & Information URL: China's Secretive Space Pro
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gram Takes A Step Into The Open URL: http://www.businessinsider.com/chinas-secretive-space-pro
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gram-takes-a-step-into-the-open-2015-1
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respectively. SANSA programs currently underway include the development and
launch of satellites that provide data used to inform government decisions on se-
curity, agriculture and environmental protection
133
. Thus, South Africa could well
use BRICS framework to enhance its own space capabilities.
134
Bilateral cooperation
Brazil
stations a
Russian
navigation satellites GLONASS.. According to
Russian Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin (April 2015), Russia is ready to
work with Brazil in the space industry to develop new space centers and Cyclone
rockets for launches, especially since the Brazilian-Ukrainian project utiliz
-
ing Cyclone rockets has been shut down
135
. Russia is currently helping Brazil to
complete the VLS-1 project using Russian technology under a previous agree
-
ment between the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) and the Brazilian
Space Agency (AEB)
136
.
Russia-China
space cooperation is a certainty given current political sanc-
tions aimed at both countries by the US and its allies. In May 2014, Russia
and China continued negotiations on joint projects, including the exploration
of Mars and Venus on the sidelines of the International Economic Forum in
St. Petersburg. One month later the two countries signed an MoU on coopera
-
tion between Russia’s GLONASS navigation system and China’s Beidou. Each
considers placing three ground stations in the other’s country
137
. In October
2014 a Russian-Chinese committee on satellite navigation was established and
in February 2015 the countries signed a cooperation agreement in the field of
satellite navigation
138
.
Another area of concern is the non-militarization of Outer Space. An Initiative
on the Treaty on Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space and of
the Threat or Use of Force Against Outer Space Objects (PPWT) came from China
and Russia in February 2008 as an international legally binding treaty that would
outlaw the weaponization of space. Last June a new version of the draft treaty was
submitted. Described as follows: the countries “consider a legally binding ban on
placement of weapons in outer space as one of the most important instruments of
strengthening global stability and equal and indivisible security for all”.
133
South African National Space Agency (SANSA) URL: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/
topic/1911268/South-African-National-Space-Agency-SANSA
134
Exploring International Space Cooperation URL: http://www.chinafrica.cn/english/africa_report/
txt/2013-11/01/content_574883.htm
135
Russia Ready to Help Brazil Develop Space Centers, Rockets — Deputy PM URL: http://sput
-
niknews.com/science/20150424/1021326429.html
136
Russia Offers Brazil New Joint Space Projects URL: http://sputniknews.com/rus
-
sia/20131020/184250734.html
137
China And Russia Continue To Deepen Space Cooperation URL: http://archive.larouchepac.
com/node/31183
138
Russia Signs Satellite Navigation Cooperation Agreement With China URL: http://sputniknews.
com/science/20150210/1018045127.html#ixzz3bu2tbhA7
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In July 2004,
Russia and India
signed a protocol to boost cooperation in space
including space launches and joint development of the GLONASS satellite naviga
-
tion system. In February 2014 Russia and India have agreed to hold consultations
on space cooperation and joint projects in this field, including GLONASS
139
. This
past March, Russia’s Ministry on Emergency Response and India’s Ministry of
Home Affairs announced plans to bolster cooperation in the development of space
monitoring systems and carry out joint training of rescue teams
140
.
Russia
assisted
South Africa
in launching its first earth orbiting satellite Sum
-
bandila into space in September 2009. The microsatellite was launched from Ka
-
zakhstan aboard a Russian Soyuz rocket
141
. In March 2013, the Russian Feder-
al Space Agency Roscosmos and the South African Space Agency reached an
agreement on astrophysical research with the RadioAstron project.
142
In October
2014, the two sides discussed prospects of a bilateral cooperation in space ex-
ploration within the framework of the BRICS Group and the RadioAstron program
and touched upon the need to develop a network of remote sensing satellites and
personnel training for the space industries of Russia and South Africa
143
.
The
China-Brazil
Earth Resources Satellite (CBERS) series was born from
a partnership between Brazil and China in the space technical scientific seg
-
ment for Earth observation and is considered to be an important program for
the development of Brazils space industry. . The first satellite of the series,
Ziyuan-1, or CBERS-1, was launched in October 1999. The second and third
satellites were launched in October 2003 and September 2007. The fourth, Zi
-
yuan-1-03, or CBERS-3, blasted off on a Long March-4B rocket in December
2013 however failed to enter orbit due to rocket malfunctions. The launch of the
Ziyuan-1-04, or CBERS-4 as it’s known in Brazil using a Long March-4B rocket
from the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center in Shanxi province in December 2014
was successful
144
.
Talks between
Brazil and India
about bilateral cooperation in the space area
have been in progress since 2004 when a Framework Agreement between the
countries to cooperate in the field of outer space was signed. In 2007 Brazil’s
Space Agency (AEB) and India’s Space Department (ISRO) set up a team to
study cooperation in the space sectors of both countries
145
. In July 2014 the two
139
Russia, India to hold consultations on space cooperation URL: http://tass.ru/en/russia/721061
140
Russia, India to join hands in space monitoring URL: http://in.rbth.com/economics/2015/03/17/
russia_india_to_join_hands_in_space_monitoring_42017.html
141
Space, Brics' next frontier URL: http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2011-10-10-space-
brics-next-frontier/#.VW2ZLqi3uMI
142
The Russian — South African Strategic Partnership URL: http://english.pravda.ru/russia/
politics/28-03-2013/124172-russia_sa_partnership-0/
143
Russia, South Africa talk space cooperation prospects URL: http://eng.tatar-inform.ru/
news/2014/10/16/49445/
144
China, Brazil to enhance satellite cooperation URL: http://english.gov.cn/news/international_ex
-
changes/2014/12/10/content_281475021890840.htm
145
Brazil And India Set Up Work Team For Space Program URL: http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/
Brazil_And_India_Set_Up_Work_Team_For_Space_Program_999.html
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countries further agreed for cooperation in augmentation of a Brazilian earth sta
-
tion for receiving and processing data from Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satel
-
lites
146
.
2014 was a milestone year for
India and China
who agreed to cooperate “in the
exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes,” with the signingof the
MoU, which “enableds both sides to encourage exchange and cooperation in the
exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, including research and de-
velopment of scientific experiment satellites, remote sensing satellites and commu
-
nications satellites”. Previously there existed a non-binding “framework agreement”,
but that did not progress beyond sharing of Indian remote sensing data with China
147
.
BRICS cooperation
Russia, India and China are expected to discuss the creation of a joint orbit-
ing station at the BRICS summit in Ufa in April, according to experts from Russian
Military Industrial Commission.
148
A BRICS space station could emerge from a simi-
lar two-nation partnership, with Russian guidance and leadership. The Military
Industrial Commission recommended approaching either China or India — both
countries that have well-developed and increasingly ambitious space programs.
The proposal would then allow other BRICS members to join
149
.
Cooperation in space was first mentioned in the Sanya Declaration in 2011, the
BRICS countries announced their intention to “explore cooperation in the sphere
of science, technology and innovation, including the peaceful use of space
150
”. In
the Fortaleza declaration of 2014 the BRICS countries reiterated their commitment
to the peaceful use of space and inadmissibility of militarization of space with the
following statements: “noting the open-ended consultations on a draft International
Code of Conduct on Outer Space Activities, and the active and constructive en-
gagement of our countries in these consultations” BRICS called for “an inclusive
and consensus-based multilateral negotiation to be conducted within the frame-
work of the UN without specific deadlines in order to reach a balanced outcome
that addresses the needs and reflects the concerns of all participants” with specific
accentuation on the programs “peaceful purposes”. It was reaffirmed that “agree
-
ments to prevent an arms race in outer space remain a priority task for the Confer-
ence on Disarmament, and welcome the introduction of China and Russia to the
updated draft Treaty on the Prevention of Weapons Placement in Outer Space, the
Threat or Use of Force Against Outer Space Objects”.
146
India signs three deals with 'key global partner' Brazil URL: http://www.business-standard.com/
article/news-ians/india-signs-three-deals-with-key-global-partner-brazil-114071601495_1.html
147
India and China Sign Space Cooperation Pact URL: http://spacenews.com/41942india-and-chi
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na-sign-space-cooperation-pact/
148
Russia, China to boost finance, aviation & space partnerships URL: http://rt.com/business/233051-
russia-china-boost-partnership/
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Russia to Propose BRICS Space Station URL: http://www.themoscowtimes.com/business/ar
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ticle/russia-to-propose-brics-space-station/514972.html
150
Sanya Declaration URL: http://www.brics.utoronto.ca/docs/110414-leaders.html