ВУЗ: Казахская Национальная Академия Искусств им. Т. Жургенова
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Preface
is unique material on reactive loading, unusual forms of compensation,
distortion produced by capacitors and fuses, and much more. I have
provided a wide and varied selection of references, so that those interested
can pursue the issues further.
Sometimes controversies arise in audio; in fact, it would be truer to say that
they have become endemic, despite a lack of hard facts on which genuine
differences of opinion might be based. Although audio power amplifiers are
in many ways straightforward in their doings, they have not escaped the
attentions of those who incline more to faith than science. In my writings,
I simply go where the facts lead me, and my experiences as an amateur
musician, my work designing professional mixing consoles, and my studies
in psychology and psychoacoustics have led me to the firm conclusion that
inexplicable influences on audio quality simply do not exist, and that any
serious book on amplifier design must start from this premise.
I have done my best to make sure that everything in this book is as correct
as theory, simulation, practical measurement and late-night worrying can
make it. The basic arguments have been validated by the production of
more than twenty thousand high-power Blameless amplifiers over the last
two years, which is perhaps as solid a confirmation as any methodology
can hope to receive. If some minor errors do remain, these are entirely
my responsibility, and when alerted I will correct them at the first
opportunity.
I hope this book may be interesting and useful to the amplifier designer and
constructor, be they amateur or professional. However, it is my fondest
wish that it may stimulate others to further explore and expand the limits of
audio knowledge.
Douglas Self
xvi
1
Introduction and general
survey
The economic importance of power amplifiers
Audio power amplifiers are of considerable economic importance. They
are built in their hundreds of thousands every year, and have a history
extending back to the 1920s. It is therefore surprising there have been so
few books dealing in any depth with solid-state power amplifier design.
The first aim of this text is to fill that need, by providing a detailed guide to
the many design decisions that must be taken when a power amplifier is
designed.
The second aim is disseminate the results of the original work done on
amplifier design in the last few years. The unexpected result of these
investigations was to show that power amplifiers of extraordinarily low
distortion could be designed as a matter of routine, without any
unwelcome side-effects, so long as a relatively simple design methodology
was followed. This methodology will be explained in detail.
Assumptions
To keep its length reasonable, a book such as this must assume a basic
knowledge of audio electronics. I do not propose to plough through the
definitions of frequency response, THD and signal-to-noise ratio; this can
be found anywhere. Commonplace facts have been ruthlessly omitted
where their absence makes room for something new or unusual, so this is
not the place to start learning electronics from scratch. Mathematics has
been confined to a few simple equations determining vital parameters such
as open-loop gain; anything more complex is best left to a circuit simulator
you trust. Your assumptions, and hence the output, may be wrong, but at
least the calculations in-between will be correct . . .
1
Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
The principles of negative feedback as applied to power amplifiers are
explained in detail, as there is still widespread confusion as to exactly how
it works.
Origins and aims
The core of this book is based on a series of eight articles originally
published in Electronics World as ‘Distortion In Power Amplifiers’. This
series was primarily concerned with distortion as the most variable feature
of power amplifier performance. You may have two units placed side by
side, one giving 2% THD and the other 0.0005% at full power, and both
claiming to provide the ultimate audio experience. The ratio between the
two figures is a staggering 4000:1, and this is clearly a remarkable state of
affairs. One might be forgiven for concluding that distortion was not a very
important parameter. What is even more surprising to those who have not
followed the evolution of audio over the last two decades is that the more
distortive amplifier will almost certainly be the more expensive. I shall deal
in detail with the reasons for this astonishing range of variation.
The original series was inspired by the desire to invent a new output stage
that would be as linear as Class-A, without the daunting heat problems. In
the course of this work it emerged that output stage distortion was
completely obscured by non-linearities in the small-signal stages, and it
was clear that these distortions would need to be eliminated before any
progress could be made. The small-signal stages were therefore studied in
isolation, using model amplifiers with low-power and very linear Class-A
output stages, until the various overlapping distortion mechanisms had
been separated out. It has to be said this was not an easy process. In each
case there proved to be a simple, and sometimes well-known cure, and
perhaps the most novel part of my approach is that all these mechanisms
are dealt with, rather than one or two, and the final result is an amplifier
with unusually low distortion, using only modest and safe amounts of
global negative feedback.
Much of this book concentrates on the distortion performance of amplifiers.
One reason is that this varies more than any other parameter – by up to a
factor of a thousand. Amplifier distortion was until recently an enigmatic
field – it was clear that there were several overlapping distortion
mechanisms in the typical amplifier, but it is the work reported here that
shows how to disentangle them, so they may be separately studied and
then with the knowledge thus gained, minimised.
I assume here that distortion is a bad thing, and should be minimised; I
make no apology for putting it as plainly as that. Alternative philosophies
hold that as some forms of non-linearity are considered harmless or even
euphonic, they should be encouraged, or at any rate not positively
discouraged. I state plainly that I have no sympathy with the latter view; to
2
Introduction and general survey
my mind the goal is to make the audio path as transparent as possible. If
some sort of distortion is considered desirable, then surely the logical way
to introduce it is by an outboard processor, working at line level. This is not
only more cost-effective than generating distortion with directly-heated
triodes, but has the important attribute that it can be switched off. Those
who have brought into being our current signal-delivery chain, i.e. mixing
consoles, multi-track recorders, CDs, have done us proud in the matter of
low distortion, and to wilfully throw away this achievement at the very last
stage strikes me as curious at best.
In this book I hope to provide information that is useful to all those
interested in power amplifiers. Britain has a long tradition of small and very
small audio companies, whose technical and production resources may not
differ very greatly from those available to the committed amateur. I hope
this volume will be of service to both.
I have endeavoured to address both the quest for technical perfection –
which is certainly not over, as far as I am concerned – and also the
commercial necessity of achieving good specifications at minimum cost.
The field of audio is full of statements that appear plausible but in fact have
never been tested and often turn out to be quite untrue. For this reason I
have confined myself as closely as possible to facts that I have verified
myself. This volume may therefore appear somewhat idiosyncratic in
places; for example FET output stages receive much less coverage than
bipolar ones because the conclusion appears to be inescapable that FETs
are both more expensive and less linear; I have therefore not pursued the
FET route very far. Similarly, most of my practical design experience has
been on amplifiers of less than 300 W power output, and so heavy-duty
designs for large-scale PA work are also under-represented. I think this is
preferable to setting down untested speculation.
The study of amplifier design
Although solid-state amplifiers have been around for some forty years, it
would be a great mistake to assume that everything possible is known
about them. In the course of my investigations I discovered several matters
which, not appearing in the technical literature, appear to be novel, at least
in their combined application:
!
The need to precisely balance the input pair to prevent second-harmonic
generation.
!
The demonstration of how a beta-enhancement transistor increases the
linearity and reduces the collector impedance of the Voltage-Amplifier
Stage.
!
An explanation of why BJT output stages always distort more into 4 !
than 8 !.
3
Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
!
In a conventional BJT output stage, quiescent current as such is of little
importance. What is crucial is the voltage between the transistor
emitters.
!
Power FETs, though for many years touted as superior in linearity, are
actually far less linear than bipolar output devices.
!
In most amplifiers, the major source of distortion is not inherent in the
amplifying stages, but results from avoidable problems such as induction
of supply-rail currents and poor power-supply rejection.
!
Any number of oscillograms of square-waves with ringing have been
published that claim to be the transient response of an amplifier into a
capacitive load. In actual fact this ringing is due to the output inductor
resonating with the load, and tells you precisely nothing about amplifier
stability.
The above list is by no means complete.
As in any developing field, this book cannot claim to be the last word on
the subject; rather it hopes to be a snapshot of the state of understanding at
this time. Similarly, I certainly do not claim that this book is fully
comprehensive; a work that covered every possible aspect of every
conceivable power amplifier would run to thousands of pages. On many
occasions I have found myself about to write: ‘It would take a whole book
to deal properly with . . .’ Within a limited compass I have tried to be
innovative as well as comprehensive, but in many cases the best I can do
is to give a good selection of references that will enable the interested to
pursue matters further. The appearance of a reference means that I consider
it worth reading, and not that I think it to be correct in every respect.
Sometimes it is said that discrete power amplifier design is rather
unenterprising, given the enormous outpouring of ingenuity in the design of
analogue ICs. Advances in op-amp design would appear to be particularly
relevant. I have therefore spent some considerable time studying this
massive body of material and I have had to regretfully conclude that it is
actually a very sparse source of inspiration for new audio power amplifier
techniques; there are several reasons for this, and it may spare the time of
others if I quickly enumerate them here:
!
A large part of the existing data refers only to small-signal MOSFETs,
such as those used in CMOS op-amps, and is dominated by the ways in
which they differ from BJTs, for example in their low transconductance.
CMOS devices can have their characteristics customised to a certain
extent by manipulating the width/length ratio of the channel.
!
In general, only the earlier material refers to BJT circuitry, and then it is
often mainly concerned with the difficulties of making complementary
circuitry when the only PNP transistors available are the slow lateral
kind with limited beta and poor frequency response.
!
Many of the CMOS op-amps studied are transconductance amplifiers,
i.e. voltage-difference-in, current out. Compensation is usually based on
4