ВУЗ: Казахская Национальная Академия Искусств им. Т. Жургенова
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Introduction and general survey
putting a specified load capacitance across the high-impedance output.
This does not appear to be a promising approach to making audio power
amplifiers.
!
Much of the op-amp material is concerned with the common-mode
performance of the input stage. This is pretty much irrelevant to power
amplifier design.
!
Many circuit techniques rely heavily on the matching of device
characteristics possible in IC fabrication, and there is also an emphasis
on minimising chip area to reduce cost.
!
A good many IC techniques are only necessary because it is (or was)
difficult to make precise and linear IC resistors. Circuit design is also
influenced by the need to keep compensation capacitors as small as
possible, as they take up a disproportionately large amount of chip area
for their function.
The material here is aimed at all audio power amplifiers that are still
primarily built from discrete components, which can include anything from
10 W mid-fi systems to the most rarefied reaches of what is sometimes
called the ‘high end’, though the ‘expensive end’ might be a more accurate
term. There are of course a large number of IC and hybrid amplifiers, but
since their design details are fixed and inaccessible they are not dealt with
here. Their use is (or at any rate should be) simply a matter of following the
relevant application note. The quality and reliability of IC power amps has
improved noticeably over the last decade, but low distortion and high
power still remain the province of discrete circuitry, and this situation
seems likely to persist for the foreseeable future.
Power amplifier design has often been treated as something of a black art,
with the implication that the design process is extremely complex and its
outcome not very predictable. I hope to show that this need no longer be
the case, and that power amplifiers are now designable – in other words it
is possible to predict reasonably accurately the practical performance of a
purely theoretical design. I have done a considerable amount of research
work on amplifier design, much of which appears to have been done for
the first time, and it is now possible for me to put forward a design
methodology that allows an amplifier to be designed for a specific
negative-feedback factor at a given frequency, and to a large extent allows
the distortion performance to be predicted. I shall show that this
methodology allows amplifiers of extremely low distortion (sub 0.001% at
1 kHz) to be designed and built as a matter of routine, using only modest
amounts of global negative feedback.
Misinformation in audio
Few fields of technical endeavour are more plagued with errors, mis-
statements and confusion than audio. In the last twenty years the rise of
controversial and non-rational audio hypotheses, gathered under the title
5
Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
Subjectivism has deepened these difficulties. It is commonplace for hi-fi
reviewers to claim that they have perceived subtle audio differences which
cannot be related to electrical performance measurements. These claims
include the alleged production of a ‘three-dimensional sound-stage and
protests that the rhythm of the music has been altered’; these statements are
typically produced in isolation, with no attempt made to correlate them to
objective test results. The latter in particular appears to be a quite
impossible claim.
This volume does not address the implementation of Subjectivist notions,
but confines itself to the measurable, the rational, and the repeatable. This
is not as restrictive as it may appear; there is nothing to prevent you using
the methodology presented here to design an amplifier that is technically
excellent, and then gilding the lily by using whatever brands of expensive
resistor or capacitor are currently fashionable, and doing the internal wiring
with cable that costs more per metre than the rest of the unit put together.
Such nods to Subjectivist convention are unlikely to damage the real
performance; this is however not the case with some of the more damaging
hypotheses, such as the claim that negative feedback is inherently harmful.
Reduce the feedback factor and you will degrade the real-life operation of
almost any design.
Such problems arise because audio electronics is a more technically
complex subject than it at first appears. It is easy to cobble together some
sort of power amplifier that works, and this can give people an altogether
exaggerated view of how deeply they understand what they have created.
In contrast, no-one is likely to take a ‘subjective’ approach to the design of
an aeroplane wing or a rocket engine; the margins for error are rather
smaller, and the consequences of malfunction somewhat more serious.
The Subjectivist position is of no help to anyone hoping to design a good
power amplifier. However, it promises to be with us for some further time
yet, and it is appropriate to review it here and show why it need not be
considered at the design stage. The marketing stage is of course another
matter.
Science and subjectivism
Audio engineering is in a singular position. There can be few branches of
engineering science rent from top to bottom by such a basic division as the
Subjectivist/rationalist dichotomy. Subjectivism is still a significant issue in
the hi-fi section of the industry, but mercifully has made little headway in
professional audio, where an intimate acquaintance with the original
sound, and the need to earn a living with reliable and affordable
equipment, provides an effective barrier against most of the irrational
influences. (Note that the opposite of Subjectivist is not ‘Objectivist’. This
term refers to the followers of the philosophy of Ayn Rand.)
6
Introduction and general survey
Most fields of technology have defined and accepted measures of
excellence; car makers compete to improve MPH and MPG; computer
manufacturers boast of MIPs (millions of instructions per second) and so on.
Improvement in these real quantities is regarded as unequivocally a step
forward. In the field of hi-fi, many people seem to have difficulty in
deciding which direction forward is.
Working as a professional audio designer, I often encounter opinions
which, while an integral part of the Subjectivist offshoot of hi-fi, are treated
with ridicule by practitioners of other branches of electrical engineering.
The would-be designer is not likely to be encouraged by being told that
audio is not far removed from witchcraft, and that no-one truly knows what
they are doing. I have been told by a Subjectivist that the operation of the
human ear is so complex that its interaction with measurable parameters
lies forever beyond human comprehension. I hope this is an extreme
position; it was, I may add, proffered as a flat statement rather than a basis
for discussion.
I have studied audio design from the viewpoints of electronic design,
psychoacoustics, and my own humble efforts at musical creativity. I have
found complete scepticism towards Subjectivism to be the only tenable
position. Nonetheless, if hitherto unsuspected dimensions of audio quality
are ever shown to exist, then I look forward keenly to exploiting them. At
this point I should say that no doubt most of the esoteric opinions are held
in complete sincerity.
The Subjectivist position
A short definition of the Subjectivist position on power amplifiers might
read as follows:
!
Objective measurements of an amplifier’s performance are unimportant
compared with the subjective impressions received in informal listening
tests. Should the two contradict the objective results may be
dismissed.
!
Degradation effects exist in amplifiers that are unknown to orthodox
engineering science, and are not revealed by the usual objective tests.
!
Considerable latitude may be employed in suggesting hypothetical
mechanisms of audio impairment, such as mysterious capacitor short-
comings and subtle cable defects, without reference to the plausibility of
the concept, or the gathering of objective evidence of any kind.
I hope that this is considered a reasonable statement of the situation;
meanwhile the great majority of the paying public continue to buy
conventional hi-fi systems, ignoring the expensive and esoteric high-end
sector where the debate is fiercest.
It may appear unlikely that a sizeable part of an industry could have set off
in a direction that is quite counter to the facts; it could be objected that
7
Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
such a loss of direction in a scientific subject would be unprecedented. This
is not so.
Parallel events that suggest themselves include the destruction of the study
of genetics under Lysenko in the USSR
[1]
. Another possibility is the study of
parapsychology, now in deep trouble because after some 100 years of
investigation it has not uncovered the ghost (sorry) of a repeatable
phenomenon
[2]
. This sounds all too familiar. It could be argued that
parapsychology is a poor analogy because most people would accept that
there was nothing there to study in the first place, whereas nobody would
assert that objective measurements and subjective sound quality have no
correlation at all; one need only pick up the telephone to remind oneself
what a 4 kHz bandwidth and 10% or so THD sounds like.
The most starting parallel I have found in the history of science is the
almost-forgotten affair of Blondlot and the N-rays
[3]
. In 1903, Rene
Blondlot, a respected French physicist, claimed to have discovered a new
form of radiation he called ‘N-rays’. (This was shortly after the discovery of
X-rays by Roentgen, so rays were in the air, as it were.) This invisible
radiation was apparently mysteriously refracted by aluminium prisms; but
the crucial factor was that its presence could only be shown by subjective
assessment of the brightness of an electric arc allegedly affected by N-rays.
No objective measurement appeared to be possible. To Blondlot, and at
least fourteen of his professional colleagues, the subtle changes in
brightness were real, and the French Academy published more than a
hundred papers on the subject.
Unfortunately N-rays were completely imaginary, a product of the
‘experimenter-expectancy’ effect. This was demonstrated by American
scientist Robert Wood, who quietly pocketed the aluminium prism during
a demonstration, without affecting Bondlot’s recital of the results. After this
the N-ray industry collapsed very quickly, and while it was a major
embarrassment at the time, it is now almost forgotten.
The conclusion is inescapable that it is quite possible for large numbers of
sincere people to deceive themselves when dealing with subjective
assessments of phenomena.
A short history of subjectivism
The early history of sound reproduction is notable for the number of times
that observers reported that an acoustic gramophone gave results indis-
tinguishable from reality. The mere existence of such statements throws
light on how powerfully mind-set affects subjective impressions. Interest in
sound reproduction intensified in the post-war period, and technical
standards such as DIN 45–500 were set, though they were soon criticised
as too permissive. By the late 1960s it was widely accepted that the
requirements for hi-fi would be satisfied by ‘THD less than 0.1%, with no
8
Introduction and general survey
significant crossover distortion, frequency response 20–20 kHz, and as
little noise as possible, please’. The early 1970s saw this expanded to
include slew-rates and properly behaved overload protection, but the
approach was always scientific and it was normal to read amplifier reviews
in which measurements were dissected but no mention made of listening
tests.
Following the growth of subjectivism through the pages of one of the
leading Subjectivist magazines (Hi-Fi News), the first intimation of what
was to come was the commencement of Paul Messenger’s column
Subjective Sounds in September 1976, in which he said: ‘The assessment
will be (almost) purely subjective, which has both strengths and weak-
nesses, as the inclusion of laboratory data would involve too much time
and space, and although the ear may be the most fallible, it is also the most
sensitive evaluation instrument.’ Subjectivism as expedient rather than
policy. Significantly, none of the early instalments contained references to
amplifier sound. In March 1977, an article by Jean Hiraga was published
vilifying high levels of negative feedback and praising the sound of an
amplifier with 2% THD. In the same issue, Paul Messenger stated that a
Radford valve amplifier sounded better than a transistor one, and by the
end of the year the amplifier-sound bandwagon was rolling. Hiraga
returned in August 1977 with a highly contentious set of claims about
audible speaker cables, and after that no hypothesis was too unlikely to
receive attention.
The limits of hearing
In evaluating the Subjectivist position, it is essential to consider the known
abilities of the human ear. Contrary to the impression given by some
commentators, who call constantly for more psychoacoustical research, a
vast amount of hard scientific information already exists on this subject,
and some of it may be briefly summarised thus:
!
The smallest step-change in amplitude that can be detected is about
0.3 dB for a pure tone. In more realistic situations it is 0.5 to 1.0 dB. This
is about a 10% change
[4]
.
!
The smallest detectable change in frequency of a tone is about 0.2% in
the band 500 Hz–2 kHz. In percentage terms, this is the parameter for
which the ear is most sensitive
[5]
.
!
The least detectable amount of harmonic distortion is not an easy figure
to determine, as there is a multitude of variables involved, and in
particular the continuously varying level of programme means that the
level of THD introduced is also dynamically changing. With mostly low-
order harmonics present the just-detectable amount is about 1%, though
crossover effects can be picked up at 0.3%, and probably lower. There
is certainly no evidence that an amplifier producing 0.001% THD
sounds any cleaner than one producing .005%
[6]
.
9