Файл: 1. Stylistics as a branch of linguistic science. Subject, methods, related research and the differences between them.docx

an illogical degree, sometimes ad absurdum.

Hyperbole may lose its quality as a stylistic device through frequent repetition. Here are some examples of language hyperbole:

‘A thousand pardons’; ‘scared to death’, ‘immensely obliged;’ ‘I’d give the world to see him.’

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12. The stylistic devices of antonomasia, periphrasis and euphemism.

Antonomasia |ˌantənəˈmeɪzɪə| is the interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of a word.

If only one meaning is materialized in the context, there is no stylistic device, as in hooligan, boycott

This device is realized in the written language, because generally capital letters are the only signals to denote the presence of the stylistic device.

Common to proper: Common words with obvious logical meaning are given nominal meaning without losing their primary, basic significance. For example, “You’re such a baby, Miss Goody Two-shoes”.

Proper to common: The use of proper names to generalize the features of the name. Proper names, i.e. the words with nominal meaning, can be traced to some quality, property or trait of a person, or to his occupation. For example, She is Madonna.

Periphrasis is the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. (structure – word-combination)

If it is understandable outside the context, it is not a SD. Such periphrases are also dictionary or language periphrases. Here are some examples of well-known dictionary periphrases (periphrastic synonyms): the cap and gown (student body); a gentleman of the long robe (a lawyer); the fair sex (women); my better half (my wife).

Logical: it is based on one of the inherent properties or perhaps a passing feature of the object described, as in instruments of destruction (Dickens) = ‘pistols’; the most pardonable of human weaknesses (Dickens) = ‘love’.

Figurative: it is based either on metaphor or on metonymy, the key-word of the collocation being the word used figuratively, as in 'the punctual servant of all work’ (Dickens) ='the sun’; ‘to tie the knot' ='to marry’.

Euphemism |ˈjuːfəmɪz(ə)m| is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one, for example, the word ‘to die’ has bred the following euphemisms: to pass away, to expire, to be no more, to depart.

Euphemisms may be divided into several groups according to their spheres of application. The most recognized are the following: 1) religious, 2) moral, 3) medical and 4) parliamentary.

The life of euphemisms is short.

13. The stylistic devices of allusion, epigram, peculiar use of proverbs and decomposition of set phrases.

ALLUSION.

A. is an indirect reference by word or phrase to a historical, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life. The reference can be made in the course of speaking or writing, no indication of the source is given and no precise wording is required. In general allusions are based in accumulated experience and knowledge of the writer who presupposes a similar experience and similar knowledge in the reader.

Allusions are not always noticeable in the text. Therefore most allusions are made to facts with which the general reader should be familiar. However, allusions are sometimes made to things and facts which need commentary before they are understood.

PROVERBS AND SAYINGS.

P. and S. are brief statements showing in condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas. (e.g. Never cry over spilled milk)

P. and S. are facts of the language and are registered in dictionaries. Can also be recognised by rhythm, alliteration and rhyme.

But the most characteristic feature of a proverb or a saying lies not in its formal linguistic expression, but in the content-form of the utterance. As is known, a proverb or a saying is a peculiar mode of utterance which is mainly characterized by its brevity. The utterance itself, taken at its face value, presents a pattern which can be successfully used for other utterances. The peculiarity of the use of a proverb lies in the fact that the actual wording becomes a pattern which needs no new wording to suggest extensions of meaning which are contextual. In other words, a proverb presupposes a simultaneous application of two meanings: the face-value or primary meaning, and an extended meaning drawn from the context, but bridled by the face-value meaning.

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Their literal meaning is suppressed by what may be termed their transferred meaning. In other words, one meaning (literal) is the form for another meaning (transferred) which contains the idea.

Proverbs can be inserted in the text with certain modifications. But these modifications still allow us to recognise initial proverb.

EPIGRAM.

Is similar to proverbs and saying. The difference - epigrams are created by individuals whose names we know. = АФОРИЗМ

Epigrams are conventional symbols for wisdom.

Epigrams possess a great degree of independence and therefore, if taken out of the context, will retain the wholeness of the idea they express. They have a generalizing function and are self-sufficient.

Brevity - in the short form they contain much information.

Epigrams are collected in a dictionary of quotations (словарь крылатых слов и выражений)

Epigrams are different from quotations.

DECOMPOSITION OF A SET PHRASE.

Set phrases are word combinations that express meaning only as a whole = idioms. The meaning of the whole cannot be understood from the meaning of the components. (To pull smb’s leg)

When the device D. of SP is at work, this device will revive the idiom into a free word combination. In other words, it makes each word of the combination acquire its literal meaning which, of course, in many cases leads to the realization of an absurdity.

We first think that it’s an idiom, but then we realise that the author meant it literally.

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14. The stylistic devices of inversion, chiasmus and parallel structures.

STYLISTIC INVERSION

“Tolerably fixed word order” – Gaperson

(Subject, Predicate, Object, Ad. Modifier) -> In the 19th c this pattern was seen in 97% of the sentences (dominant word order)

Certain changes to the fixed word order would attract attention!!

The way the sentences are arranged ensures that we find the most important info in the end or in the beginning -> changing word order would change the significance of the information;

Stylistic inversion aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance. Therefore a specific intonation pattern is the inevitable satellite of inversion.

The most frequently observed patterns are as follows:

1. 
   The object is placed at the beginning of the sentence
   
2. 
   The attribute is placed after the word it modifies
   
3. 
   The predicative is placed before the subject
   
4. 
   The ad. modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence
   
5. 
   Both the modifier and the predicative are placed before the subject
   

Other models are possible

Don’t mix inversion with subordinate clauses inserted in main sentences

PARALLEL STRUCTURES

This is a device which may be encountered not so often in a sentence, but in units larger than a sentence, e.g. a paragraph

The necessary condition is identical, or similar, syntactic pattern in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession. (Not exactly a word should be repeated, but a syntactic pattern!!)

PS can be combined with other devices: repetition, antithesis, climax.

PS are liked by public speakers, because they create rhythm, they attract attention etc.

CHIASMUS (inverted parallel structures) (хиазм)

A syntactic stylistic device, based on the repetition of a syntactical pattern with a cross order of words and phrases. The structure of two successive sentences or parts of a sentence may be described as reversed parallel construction, the word-order of one of the sentences being inverted as compared with that of the other.

e.g. Down dropped the wind, the sails dropped down.

(Adv. M. – Pred. – Subj. – Subj. – Pred. – Adv. M.)

Like parallel construction, chiasmus contributes to the rhythmical quality of the utterance.

Not to be confused with lexical chiasmus, where there is no inversion!!! (e.g. His jokes were sermons, and his sermons jokes)

15. The stylistic devices of repetition, enumeration and suspense.

REPETITION

Repetition - multiple use of the same lexical unit in close succession.

If a lexical unit is repeated to express emotional state of the speaker, than it is not a stylistic device.

For repetition to be a SD it should aim at logical emphasis, the emphasis necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the key-word of the sentence.

Root-repetition – not the whole word but part of the word may be repeated; also there may be words with the same roots but belonging to different parts of speech.

Synonymical repetition – the same idea is expressed with synonymous word combinations (tautology – тавтология) – > poor style

Types of repetition:

• 
  Anaphoric repetition (occurs at the beginning of two or more consecutive sentences)
  
• 
  Epiphoric repetition (occurs at the end of two or more consecutive sentences) <…A…A…A>
  
• 
  Frame repetition (opens and closes a syntactical unit, quite often a paragraph)
  
• 
  Linking / reduplication (or anadiplosis): the last word of an utterance is repeated at the beginning of the next utterance <….A, A….>
  
• 
  Chain repetition (use of linking repetition several times in the same utterance) <…A, A….B, B….C, C….>
  

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Functions of repetition:

1. 
   Intensification of the utterance
   
2. 
   Rhythmical function
   
3. 
   Suggestion of monotony, hopelessness, reiteration, continuity
   
4. 
   Epiphoric repetition may serve to stress the ordinarily unstressed elements of the utterance
   

ENUMERATION

A SD by which separate things, objects, phenomena, properties, actions are named one by one so that they produce a chain, the links of which, being syntactically in the same position are forced to display some kind of semantic homogeneity, remote though it may seem.

Enumeration, as a SD, may be conventionally called a sporadic semantic field, inasmuch as many cases of enumeration have no continuous existence in their manifestation as semantic fields do. The grouping of sometimes absolutely heterogeneous notions occurs only in isolated instances to meet some peculiar purpose of the writer.

e.g. He spent years in the terrorist game, buying weapons, explosives, passports, anonymity.

SUSPENSE

A compositional device which consists in arranging the utterance in such a way that the less important, insignificant, subordinate parts are amassed at the beginning, the main idea being withheld till the end of the utterance. Thus the reader’s attention is held and his interest kept up.

Sentences of this type are called periodic sentences, or periods. (they are long and complex) Their function is to create suspense, to keep the reader in a state of uncertainty and expectation.

Creates an expectation; is often combined with gradation or climax.

The device of suspense must be framed in one sentence, because there must not be a break in the intonation pattern, which result in the loss of constant emotional tension

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