Файл: Учебное пособие по курсу Иностранный язык Казань 2007 удк 804. 37. 022 М90 Мулюков И. М., И. А. Абдуллин Английский язык для технических специальностей Учебное пособие для студентов технических вузов. Казань Казан гос энерг унт, 2007.doc

Because the speed of rotation controls the flow of current in the armature, special devices must be used for starting DC motors. When the armature is at rest, it has virtually no resistance, and if the normal working voltage is applied, a large current will flow, which may damage the commutator or the armature windings.

The usual means of preventing such damage is the use of a starting resistance in series with the armature to lower the current until the motor begins to develop an adequate back voltage. As the motor picks up speed, the resistance is gradually reduced, either manually or automatically.

The speed at which a DC motor operates depends on the strength of the magnetic field acting on the armature, as well as on the armature current. The stronger the field, the slower is the rate of rotation needed to generate a back voltage large enough to counteract the applied voltage. For this reason the speed of DC motors can be controlled by varying the field current.

Text D

Alternating-Current (AC) Generators (Alternators)

A simple generator without a commutator will produce an electric current that alternates in direction as the armature revolves. Such alternating current is advantageous for electric power transmission , and hence most large electric generators are of the AC type. In its simplest form, an AC generator differs from a DC generator in only two particulars: the ends of its armature winding are brought out to solid unsegmented slip rings on the generator shaft instead of to commutators, and the field coils are energized by an external DC source rather than by the generator itself. Low-speed AC generators are built with as many as 100 poles, both to improve their efficiency and to attain more easily the frequency desired. Alternators driven by high-speed turbines, however, are often two-pole machines. The frequency of the current delivered by an AC generator is equal to half the product of the number of poles and the number of revolutions per second of the armature.

It is often desirable to generate as high a voltage as possible, and rotating armatures are not practical in such applications because of the possibility of sparking between brushes and slip rings and the danger of mechanical failures that might cause short circuits. Alternators are therefore constructed with a stationary armature within which revolves a rotor composed of a number of field magnets. The principle of operation is exactly the same as that of the AC generator described, except that the magnetic field (rather than the conductors of the armature) is in motion.

The current generated by the alternators described above rises to a peak, sinks to zero, drops to a negative peak, and rises again to zero a number of times each second, depending on the frequency for which the machine is designed. Such current is known as single-phase alternating current. If, however, the armature is composed of two windings, mounted at right angles to each other, and provided with separate external connections, two current waves will be produced, each of which will be at its maximum when the other is at zero. Such current is called two-phase alternating current. If three armature windings are set at 120° to each other, current will be produced in the form of a triple wave, known as three-phase alternating current. A larger number of phases may be obtained by increasing the number of windings in the armature, but in modern electrical-engineering practice three-phase alternating current is most commonly used, and the three-phase alternator is the dynamoelectric machine typically employed for the generation of electric power. Voltages as high as 13,200 are common in alternators.
Words and expressions

power transmission - передача энергии

efficiency - коэффициент полезного действия,

эффективность

mechanical failure - механическое повреждение

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frequency - частота; повторяемость элементов

connection - соединение; включение; соедини-

тельная деталь

generation - генерация

Exercise 1

Ответьтенаследующиевопросы:

1. 
   What type of current is advantageous for electric power transmission?
   
2. 
   What is the type of the largest electric generators?
   
3. 
   What is the general difference between AC and DC generators?
   
4. 
   What is the easiest way to attain the desired frequency in AC generators?
   
5. 
   How the frequency of the current delivered by an AC generator can be calculated?
   
6. 
   Are rotating armatures practical in generation of high voltage?
   
7. 
   What is the difference in principle of operation of alternators and AC generators?
   
8. 
   How alternators generate a single-phase alternating current?
   
9. 
   How larger number of phases may be obtained?
   

Exercise 2

Заполните пропуски недостающими по смыслу словами, используя текст:

1. 
   Alternating current is … for electric power transmission.
   
2. 
   In AC generators the field coils are energized by an … DC source.
   
3. 
   Low-speed AC generators have as many as 100 poles to … their efficiency.
   
4. 
   The frequency of the … delivered by an AC generator is equal to half the product of the number of poles.
   
5. 
   In generation of high voltage the rotating … are not practical.
   
6. 
   Alternators are constructed with a … armature.
   
7. 
   The principle of operation alternator is exactly the same as that of the AC generator except that the … field is in motion.
   
8. 
   If the armature of generator is composed of two windings it generates … alternating current.
   
9. 
   The current produced in the form of a triple wave is known as … alternating current.
   
10. 
    A larger number of … may be obtained by increasing the number of windings in the armature.
    

Exercise 3

Соответствуют ли данные предложения содержанию текста:

1. 
   A simple generator without a commutator will produce an electric current that alternates in the opposite direction as the armature revolves.
   
2. 
   Direct current is advantageous for electric power transmission.
   
3. 
   There is no any difference between AC and DC generators.
   
4. 
   Low-speed AC generators are built with as many as 100 poles.
   
5. 
   The frequency of the current delivered by an AC generator is equal to the product of the number of poles.
   
6. 
   Rotating armatures are practical in generation of as high a voltage as possible.
   
7. 
   Alternators are therefore constructed with a rotating armature and a rotor composed of a number of field magnets.
   
8. 
   The principle of operation of alternators is the same as that of the AC generator.
   
9. 
   If the armature of generator is composed of two windings it is called a single-phase generator.
   
10. 
    If three armature windings in generator are set at 45° to each other such generator produces three-phase alternating current.
    
11. 
    Voltages as high as 220 V are common in alternators.
    

Exercise 4

Используя текст, составьте высказывания с данными словами и выражениями:

Armature revolution - alternating current - electric power transmission - simplest form of generator - armature winding - field coil - external source - low-speed generator - high-speed turbine - number of revolutions per second - as high a voltage as possible - danger of mechanical failure - short circuit - stationary armature - principle of operation - negative peak - single-phase alternating current – to be composed – to be mounted – to be employed for.
Exercise 5

Кратко передайте содержание каждого абзаца.
Exercise 6

Выделите пять основных идей текста.
Exercise 7

Составьте предложения, используя данные выражения:

• 
  Source (источник); continuous source (непрерывно действующий источник); extended source (распределенный источник); feed source (источник питания); light source (источник света); packaged source (компактный источник ); volume source (объемный источник).
  
• 
  efficiency (к.п.д., эффективность); efficiency of control (совершенство управления); average efficiency (средний к.п.д); electrical efficiency (электрический к.п.д); energy efficiency (энергетическая отдача); heat efficiency (тепловой к.п.д); fuel efficiency (к.п.д по топливу); power transmittance efficiency (коэффициент передачи по мощности); transmission efficiency (к.п.д передачи); watt-hour efficiency (ватт-часовая отдача).
  
• 
  Failure (повреждение); electronic failure (выход из строя радиоаппаратуры); engine failure (отказ двигателя); fatigue failure (усталостное повреждение); power failure (перерыв в подаче энергии); premature failure (преждевременное разрушение); structural failure (поломка конструкции); voltage failure (электрический пробой).
  
• 
  connection (соединение); bolted-on connection (болтовое соединение); bullet connection (штепсельное соединение); chain connection (каскадное включение); ground connection (заземление); multiple connection (параллельное соединение); permanent connection (неразъемное соединение); series connection (последовательное соединение); series-parallel connection (последовательно-параллельное соединение); star connection (соединение звездой); step connection (ступенчатое включение).
  

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Exercise 8

Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения:

1. 
   During the early 1830s the English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday discovered a means by which to convert mechanical energy into electricity on a large scale.
   
2. 
   Electric motors, which convert electrical energy to mechanical energy, run virtually every kind of machine that uses electricity.
   
3. 
   In 1888 Nikola Tesla, a Serbian-American inventor, introduced the prototype of the present-day alternating-current (AC) motor.
   
4. 
   Direct energy-conversion devices have received much attention because of the necessity to develop more efficient ways of transforming available forms of primary energy into electric power.
   
5. 
   The battery, invented by the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta about 1800, changes chemical energy directly into an electric current.
   
6. 
   Thermoelectric generators are devices that convert heat directly into electricity.
   
7. 
   The inventor investigated various materials that produce electric energy with an efficiency of 5 percent or higher.
   
8. 
   A basic theory of thermoelectricity was finally formulated during the early 1900s.
   

Exercise 9

Переведите на английский язык:

1. 
   Принцип работы простого генератора переменного тока заключается в том, что ток, вырабатываемый им, чередуется в направлении по мере вращения якоря.
   
2. 
   Генераторы переменного тока используются для передачи электроэнергии на расстояние от источника энергии.
   
3. 
   Генераторы переменного тока могут иметь до сотни полюсов.
   
4. 
   Двухполюсные генераторы переменного тока приводятся в движение при помощи мощных турбин.
   
5. 
   Величина тока, вырабатываемого генераторами переменного тока, зависит от количества полюсов и частоты вращения якоря.
   
6. 
   Причиной короткого замыкания в двигателе, явилось механическое повреждение проводов.
   
7. 
   Якорь в генераторах переменного тока находится в стационарном положении.
   
8. 
   Двухфазный ток вырабатывается генераторами, имеющими две обмотки в якоре.
   
9. 
   Генераторы переменного тока могут вырабатывать напряжение до 13500 вольт.
   

Exercise 10

Текст на самостоятельный перевод:
AC Motors

Two basic types of motors are designed to operate on polyphase alternating current, synchronous motors and induction motors. The synchronous motor is essentially a three-phase alternator operated in reverse. The field magnets are mounted on the rotor and are excited by direct current, and the armature winding is divided into three parts and fed with three-phase alternating current. The variation of the three waves of current in the armature causes a varying magnetic reaction with the poles of the field magnets, and makes the field rotate at a constant speed that is determined by the frequency of the current in the AC power line. The constant speed of a synchronous motor is advantageous in certain devices; however, in applications where the mechanical load on the motor becomes very great, synchronous motors cannot be used, because if the motor slows down under load it will “fall out of step” with the frequency of the current and come to a stop. Synchronous motors can be made to operate from a single-phase power source by the inclusion of suitable circuit elements that cause a rotating magnetic field.

The simplest of all electric motors is the squirrel-cage type of induction motor used with a three-phase supply. The armature of the squirrel-cage motor consists of three fixed coils similar to the armature of the synchronous motor. The rotating member consists of a core in which are imbedded a series of heavy conductors arranged in a circle around the shaft and parallel to it. With the core removed, the rotor conductors resemble in form the cylindrical cages once used to exercise pet squirrels. The three-phase current flowing in the stationary armature windings generates a rotating magnetic field, and this field induces a current in the conductors of the cage. The magnetic reaction between the rotating field and the current-carrying conductors of the rotor makes the rotor turn. If the rotor is revolving at exactly the same speed as the magnetic field, no currents will be induced in it, and hence the rotor should not turn at a synchronous speed. In operation the speeds of rotation of the rotor and the field differ by about 2 to 5 percent. This speed difference is known as slip. Motors with squirrel-cage rotors can be used on single-phase alternating current by means of various arrangements of inductance and capacitance that alter the characteristics of the single-phase voltage and make it resemble a two-phase voltage. Such motors are called split-phase motors or condenser motors (or capacitor motors), depending on the arrangement used. Single-phase squirrel-cage motors do not have a large starting torque, and for applications where such torque is required, repulsion-induction motors are used.

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Miscellaneous Machines

For special applications several combined types of dynamoelectric machines are employed. It is frequently desirable to change from direct to alternating current or vice versa, or to change the voltage of a DC supply, or the frequency or phase of an AC supply. One means of accomplishing such changes is to use a motor operating from the available type of electric supply to drive a generator delivering the current and voltage wanted. Motor generators, consisting of an appropriate motor mechanically coupled to an appropriate generator, can accomplish most of the indicated conversions. A rotary converter is a machine for converting alternating to direct current, using separate windings on a common rotating armature. The AC supply voltage is applied to the armature through slip rings, and the DC voltage is led out of the machine through a separate commutator. A dynamotor, which is usually used to convert low-voltage direct current to high-voltage direct current, is a similar machine that has separate armature windings.

Pairs of machines known as synchros, selsyns, or autosyns are used to transmit torque or mechanical movement from one place to another by electrical means. They consist of pairs of motors with stationary fields and armatures wound with three sets of coils similar to those of a three-phase alternator. In use, the armatures of selsyns are connected electrically in parallel to each other but not to any external source. The field coils are connected in parallel to an external AC source. When the armatures of both selsyns are in the same position relative to the magnetic fields of their respective machines, the currents induced in the armature coils will be equal and will cancel each other out. When one of the armatures is moved, however, an imbalance is created that will cause a current to be induced in the other armature. The magnetic reaction to this current will move the second armature until it is in the same relative position as the first. Selsyns are widely used for remote-control and remote-indicating instruments where it is inconvenient or impossible to make a mechanical connection. DC machines known as amplidynes or rotortrols, which have several field windings, may be used as power amplifiers. A small change in the power supplied to one field winding produces a much larger corresponding change in the power output of the machine. These electrodynamic amplifiers are frequently employed in servomechanism and other control systems.

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Unit 5

Text B

Electric Power Systems

Electric Power Systems are the systems for the transformation of other types of energy into electrical energy and the transmission of this energy to the point of consumption. The production and transmission of energy in the form of electricity have important economic advantages in terms of cost per unit of power delivered.

Electric power systems also make possible the utilization of hydroelectric power at a distance from the source. Alternating current (AC) is generally used in modern power systems, because it may be easily converted to higher or lower voltages by means of transformers. Thus, each stage of the system can be operated at an appropriate voltage. Such an electric power system consists of six main elements: the power station; a set of transformers to raise the generated power to the high voltages used on the transmission lines; the transmission lines; the substations at which the power is stepped down to the voltage on the subtransmission lines; the subtransmission lines; and the transformers that lower the subtransmission voltage to the level used by the consumer's equipment.

In a typical system the generators at the central station deliver a voltage of from 1000 to 26,000 volts (V); higher voltages are undesirable because of difficulties of insulation and the danger of electrical breakdown and damage.

This voltage is stepped up by means of transformers to values ranging from 138,000 to 765,000 V for the primary transmission line (the greater the voltage on the line, the less the current and consequently the less the power loss, the loss being proportional to the square of the current). At the substation the voltage may be transformed down to levels of 69,000 to 138,000 V for further transfer on the subtransmission system. The voltage is stepped down again by transformers to a distribution level such as 2400 or 4160 V or 15, 27, or 33 kilovolts (kV). Finally the voltage is transformed once again at the distribution transformer near the point of use to 240 or 120 V. The modern development of high-voltage solid-state rectifiers makes possible the economical conversion of high-voltage AC to high-voltage DC for power distribution, thus avoiding capacitive and inductive losses in transmission. The central station of a power system consists of a prime mover, such as a water or steam turbine, which operates an electric generator. Most of the world's electric power in the early 1990s was generated in steam plants driven by coal, oil, nuclear energy, or gas, with lesser percentages generated by hydroelectric, diesel, and internal-combustion plants.

The lines of high-voltage transmission systems are usually composed of wires of copper, aluminum, or copper-clad or aluminum-clad steel, which are suspended from tall latticework towers of steel by strings of porcelain insulators. By the use of clad steel wires and high towers, the distance between towers can be increased, and the cost of the transmission line thus reduced. In modern installations with essentially straight paths, high-voltage lines may be built with as few as six towers to the mile. In some areas high-voltage lines are suspended from tall wooden poles spaced more closely together. For lower voltage subtransmission and distribution lines, wooden poles are generally used rather than steel towers. In cities and other areas where open lines create a hazard, insulated underground cables are used for distribution. Some of these cables have a hollow core through which oil circulates under low pressure. The oil provides temporary protection from water damage to the enclosed wires should the cable develop a leak. Pipe-type cables in which three cables are enclosed in a pipe filled with oil under high pressure (14 kg per sq cm/200 psi) are frequently used. These cables are used for transmission and subtransmission of current at voltages as high as 345,000 V (or 345 kV).

Any electric-distribution system involves a large amount of supplementary equipment for the protection of generators, transformers, and the transmission lines themselves. The system often includes devices designed to regulate the voltage delivered to consumers and to correct the power factor of the system.

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