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§ 6. Reciprocal pronouns.
1. Reciprocal pronouns are the group-pronouns each other and one another. They express mutual action or relation. The subject to which they refer must always be in the plural.
“I didn’t really know him,” he thought, “and he didn’t know me; but we loved
each other.” (Galsworthy)
We haven’t set eyes on one another for years. (Priestley)
Each other generally implies only two, one another two or more than two persons:
He had never heard his father or his mother speak in an angry voice, either to
each other, himself, or anybody else. (Galsworth’y)
Seated in a row close to one another were three ladies — Aunts Ann, Hester
(the two Forsyte maids), and Julie (short for Julia)... (Galsworthy)
It must be mentioned that this distinction is not always strictly observed:
I should have been surprised if those two could have thought very highly of
one another. (Dickens)
2. Reciprocal pronouns have two case forms.
Girls banged into each other and stamped on each other’s feet. (Mansfield)
The common case of reciprocal pronouns is used as an object.
The men were not grave and dignified. They lost their tempers easily and
called one another names... (London)
Elizabeth and George talked and found each other delightful. (Aldington)
The genitive case of reciprocal pronouns may be used as an attribute.
At first it struck me that I might live by selling my works to the ten per cent
who were like myself; but a moment’s reflection showed me that these must
all be as penniless as I, and that we could not live by, so to speak, taking in
one another’s washing. (Shaw)
Not until moon and stars faded away and streaks of daylight began to appear,
did Meitje Brinker and Hans look hopelessly into each other’s face. (Dodge)
Reciprocal pronouns preceded by a preposition are used as a prepositional indirect object:
They look at one another for a moment. (Dickens)
...in silence they stared at each other. (Saxton)
§ 7. Demonstrative pronouns.
1. The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, such, (the) same.
The demonstrative pronouns this and that have two numbers: this — these; that — those.
This is used to point at what is nearer in time or space; that points at what is farther away in time or space.
He looked him over critically. “Yes, this boy might do,” he thought. (Dreiser)
“I like that fellow,” Henry Waterman confided to his brother the moment
Frank had gone with instructions to report the following morning. (Dreiser)
This and that may be applied both to persons and things.
And this girl was French, not likely to lose her head, or accept any
unlegalized position. (Galsworthy)
Other people were anxious to get this soap at this price. (Dreiser)
What do you think of that Belgian fellow, Profond? (Galsworthy)
To Forsyte imagination that house was now a sort of Chinese pill-box...
(Galsworthy)
The pronoun such.
She wore a red ribbon in her hair, and was the only one of the white company
who could boast of such a pronounced adornment. (Hardy)
The pronoun same is always used with the definite article.
The driver was a young man... wearing a dandy cap, drab jacket, breeches of
the same hue. (Hardy)
2.The demonstrative pronouns this and that are used as subjects, predicatives, objects, and attributes.
It’s all right, but I’d rather try my hand at brokerage, I think that appeals to
me. (Dreiser) (SUBJECT)
The only honest people — if they existed — were those who said: “This is
foul brutality...” (Aldington) (PREDICATIVE)
Tell me just how you did this. (Dreiser) (OBJECT)
“If that young fellow wanted a place, I’d give it to him,” he thought.
(Dreiser) (ATTRIBUTE)
The demonstrative pronoun that (those) may be used as a word-substitute:
But in thinking of his remaining guest, an expression like that of a cat who is
just going to purr stole over his (Swithin’s) old face. (Galsworthy)
The features (of young Jolyon) were certainly those of a Forsyte, but the
expression was more the introspective look of a student or philosopher.
(Galsworthy)
The pronoun such is used as subject, predicative, object, and attribute:
If any living man can manage this horse I can — I won’t say any living man
can do it — but if such has the power, I am here. (Hardy) (SUBJECT)
Her idolatry of this man was such that she herself almost feared it to be ill-
omened. (Hardy) (PREDICATIVE)
But such thoughts and visions did not prevent him from following Professor
Caldwell closely. (London) (ATTRIBUTE)
The pronoun (the) same usually performs the function of an attribute, but it may be used as subject, predicative, object:
We were in the same classes. (London) (ATTRIBUTE)
It is to be feared the same could not be said of you, were you to be called
hence. (Ch. Bronte) (SUBJECT)
Martin’s Sunday was the same as before. (London) (PREDICATIVE)
“May this young man do the same!” said Angel fervently. (Hardy) (OBJECT)
§ 8. Interrogative pronouns.
1. Interrogative pronouns are used in inquiry, to form special questions. They are: who, whose, what, which.
The interrogative pronoun who has the category of case: the nominative case is who, the objective case whom.
Who refers to human beings:
Slipping her hand under his arm, she said: “Who was that?” “He picked up
my handkerchief. We talked about pictures.” (Galsworthy)
What when not attributive usually refers to things but it may be applied to persons when one inquires about their occupation.
“What are you looking for, Tess?” the doctor called. “Hairpins,” she replied...
(London)
“What was he?” “A painter.” (Galsworthy)
Which has a selective meaning: it corresponds to the Russian ‘который из’ (an individual of the group). It may refer to persons and things.
The boys clasped each other suddenly in an agony of fright. “Which of us
does he mean?” gasped Huckleberry. (Twain)
Which side of the bed do you like, Mum? (Galsworthy)
The questions Who is he? What is he? Which is he? differ in their meaning. The first question inquires about the name or parentage of some person. The second question inquires about the occupation of the person spoken about. The third question inquires about some particular person out of a definite group of persons.
2. In the sentence interrogative pronouns may have different functions — those of subject, predicative, object, and attribute:
Who, do you think, has been to see you, Dad? She couldn’t wait! Guess.
(Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
“What’s been happening, then?” he said sharply. (Eliot) (SUBJECT)
“No, who’s he?” “Oh, he’s a Polish Jew.” (Aldington) (PREDICATIVE)
“What are you, Mr. Mont, if I may ask?” “I, sir? I was going to be a painter.”
(Galsworthy) (PREDICATIVE)
“What was her father?” “Heron was his name, a Professor, so they tell me.”
(Galsworthy) (PREDICATIVE)
“He says he’s married,” said Winifred. “Whom to, for goodness’ sake?”
(Galsworthy) (OBJECT)
“Who do you mean?” I said. (Dn Maurier) (OBJECT)1
1 There is a tendency in Modern English to use who, instead of whom, as an object:
Z. If it doesn’t matter who anybody marries, then it doesn’t matter who I
marry and it doesn’t matter who you marry.
A. Whom, not who.
Z. Oh, speak English: you’re not on the telephone now. (Shaw)
“What did you see in Clensofantrim?” “Nothing but beauty, darling.”
(Galsworthy) (OBJECT)
“What sort of a quarrel?” he heard Fleur say. (Galsworthy) (ATTRIBUTE)
Whose pain can have been like mine? Whose injury is like mine? (Eliot)
(ATTRIBUTE)
Which day is it that Dorloote Mill is to be sold? (Eliot) (ATTRIBUTE)
§ 9. Relative pronouns.
1. Relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as) not only point back to a noun or a pronoun mentioned before but also have conjunctive power. They introduce attributive clauses. The word they refer to is called their antecedent. It may be a noun or a pronoun.
Who is used in reference to human beings or animals.
Jolyon bit his lips; he who had always hated rows almost welcomed the
thought of one now. (Galsworthy)
...in his voice was a strange note of fear that frightened the animal, who had
never known the man speak in such way before. (London)
Whose is mainly used in reference to human beings or animals but it may be applied to things.
Then there was the proud Rychie Korbes, whose father, Mynheer van Korbes,
was one of the leading men of Amsterdam. (Dodge)
Again he (Soames) looked at her (Irene), huddled like a bird that is shot and
dying, whose poor breast you see panting as the air is taken from it, whose
poor eyes look at you who have shot it, with a slow, soft, unseeing look...
(Galsworthy)
...he (superintendent) wore a stiff standing-collar whose upper edge almost
reached his ears, and whose sharp points curved forward abreast the corners
of his mouth... (Twain)
Which is used in reference to things and animals.
Here was her own style — a bed which did not look like one and many
mirrors. (Galsworthy)
They strove to steal a dog — the fattest, which was very thin — but I shoved
my pistol in their faces and told them begone. (London)
That is mainly used in reference to animals and things. It may also be used in reference to human beings.
This... gave him much the same feeling a man has when a dog that he owns
wriggles and looks at him. (Galsworthy)
On one side was a low wall that separated it from the street. (London)
In the factory quarter, doors were opening everywhere, and he was soon one
of a multitude that pressed onward through the dark. (London)
As usually introduces attributive clauses when the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause (it is a rare case when’as is used without such in the principal clause).
As may refer to living beings and things.
...perhaps the books were right and there were many such as she (Ruth) in the
upper walks of life. (London)
His mother was a poor peasant woman, too poor even to think of such a thing
as buying skates for her little ones. (Dodge)
For nobody’s ever heard me say as it wasn’t lucky for my children to have
aunts and uncles as can live independent. (Eliot)
...I went into Snow Park. It wasn’t as one expects a municipal park to be...
(Braine)
2. Relative pronouns can also refer to a clause (see Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence, § 8).
Relative pronouns always perform some syntactical function in the clause they introduce.
Gemma, there’s a man downstairs who wants to see you. (Vovnich)
(SUBJECT)
She flashed a look at him that was more anger than appeal. (London)
(SUBJECT)
...then discussion assumed that random volubility which
softens a decision
already forced on one. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
I think I have taken nothing that you or your people have given me.
(Galsworthy) (OBJECT)
Families often think it due to themselves to turn their back on newcomers,
whom they may not think quite enough for them. (Shaw) (OBJECT)
It pleased Denny to exert the full force of his irony upon the work which they
were doing. (Cronin) (OBJECT)
§ 10. Conjunctive pronouns.
1. Conjunctive pronouns (who, what, whose, which) not only point back to some person or thing mentioned before but also have conjunctive power, introducing subordinate clauses (subject clauses, object clauses, predicative clauses).1
1 See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence.
What June had taken for personal interest was only the impersonal excitement
of every Forsyte... (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT CLAUSE)
What you want, in fact, is a first-rate man for a fourth-rate fee, and that’s
exactly what you’ve got! (Galsworthy) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)
I don’t want to hear what you’ve come for. (Galsworthy) (OBJECT
CLAUSE)
2. In the clause they introduce they perform different functions, those of subject, predicative, attribute, object.
What had made her yield he could never make out; and from Mrs. Heron, a
woman of some diplomatic talent, he learnt nothing. (Galsworthy)
(SUBJECT)
Erik realized with a sinking sensation that Haviland didn’t know who he was.
(Wilson) (PREDICATIVE)
I’ve spent a lot of time in the chart-room now, and I’m on the edge of
knowing my way about, what charts I want to refer to, what coasts I want to
explore. (London) (ATTRIBUTE)
What Savina could no longer do for him, he did himself, and brutally brushed
aside all other interests except her. (Wilson) (OBJECT)
§ 11. Defining pronouns.
The defining pronouns are: all, each, every, everybody, everyone, everything, either, both, other, another.
1. All is a generalizing pronoun, it takes a group of things or persons as a whole.
All may be used as subject, predicative, object, and attribute.
...when all is said and done... (London) (SUBJECT)
He just loved me, that is all. (London) (PREDICATIVE)
And Martin forgot all about it. (London) (OBJECT)
...if all the doors are closed... (London) (ATTRIBUTE)
2. Both points out two persons, things or notions mentioned before.
“But there is more to be said,” he continued, after a pause painful to both.
(London)
You can study French, or you can study German, or cut them both out and
study Esperanto... (London)
The pronoun both may be used as subject, object, and attribute.
Both seemed to implore something to shelter them from reality. (Hardy)
(SUBJECT)
The light, admitted by windows at both ends, was unfortunately not Chinese.
(Galsworthy) (ATTRIBUTE)
When preceded by a preposition both may be used as a prepositional indirect object.
He invariably paid the way for both, and it was through him that Martin
learned the refinement of food. (London)
3. Each, every, everybody, everyone, everything.
Each and every refer to all the members of the group of persons, things, or notions mentioned before and taken one by one. When used as subject, each etc. require a verb in the singular.
Each may be used as subject, object, and attribute.
The train coming in a minute later, the two brothers parted and entered their
respective compartments. Each felt aggrieved that the other had not modified
his habits to secure his society a little longer. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
He paid a dollar each. (London) (OBJECT)
It (a blackbird) started singing as I looked out of the window, ending each
phrase abruptly as if jout of breath, a curiously amateur effect. (Braine)
(ATTRIBUTE)
When preceded by a preposition each may be used as a prepositional indirect object:
They began to deal swiftly with the cocoa tins, slipping a stick of dynamite in
each. (Cronin)
Every is used only as an attribute:
This is something more than genius. It is true, every line of it. (London)
Everybody, everyone refer to all the members of the group of persons mentioned before or taken one by one.
The pronouns everybody, everyone have two cases: the common case and the genitive case.
The common case may be used as subject and object.
You walked into the waiting-room, into a great buzz of conversation, and
there was everybody; you knew almost everybody. (Mansfield) (SUBJECT,
OBJECT)
The genitive case of the pronouns everyone and everybody is used as an attribute.
...he almost forgot the nearly intolerable discomfort of his new clothes in the
entirely intolerable discomfort of being set up as a target for everybody’s
gaze and everybody’s laudations. (Twain)
When preceded by a preposition everyone and everybody may be used as a prepositional indirect object.
How know? And without knowing how give such pain to everyone?
(Galsworthy)
Everything may be applied to things, animals and abstract notions. In the sentence it is used as subject, predicative, and object.
No one will see us. Pull down that veil and everything will be all right.
(London) (SUBJECT)
Of course, class is everything, really. (Galsworthy) (PREDICATIVE)
He was not long in assuming that Brissenden knew everything. (London)
(OBJECT)
4. Either has two meanings: (a) each of the two, (b) one or the other.
The trail wasn’t three feet wide on the crest, and on either side the ridge fell
away in precipices hundreds of feet deep. (London)
Then he remembered the underwriters and the owners, the two masters a
captain must serve, either of which could and would break him and whose
interests were diametrically opposed. (London)
In the sentence either is usually used as attribute or part of the subject (see the above examples).
5. Other, another. Other denotes some object different from the one mentioned before.
Other has two numbers: singular — other; plural — others. It has two cases: the common case and the genitive case (other’s, others’).
He walked at the other’s heels with a swing to his shoulders and his legs
spread unwittingly... (London)
In the sentence it is used as subject, object, and attribute.
After tea the others went off to bathe... (Mansfield) (SUBJECT)
When he brought his suitcase down into the hall, Isabel left the others and
went over to him. (Mansfield) (OBJECT)
But the circumstance was sufficient to lead him to select Tess in preference to
the other pretty milkmaids. (Hardy) (ATTRIBUTE)
When preceded by a preposition it may be used as a prepositional indirect object:
You are not fair to the others. (Voynich)
Another has two meanings: (1) ‘a different one’, (2) ‘an additional one’.
He has learnt sheep-farming at another place, and he’s now mastering dairy
work. (Hardy)
Yes, thought Soames, another year of London and that sort of life, and she’ll
be spoiled. (Galsworthy)
Another may be used as subject, object, and attribute.
The lantern hanging at her wagon had gone out but
1. Reciprocal pronouns are the group-pronouns each other and one another. They express mutual action or relation. The subject to which they refer must always be in the plural.
“I didn’t really know him,” he thought, “and he didn’t know me; but we loved
each other.” (Galsworthy)
We haven’t set eyes on one another for years. (Priestley)
Each other generally implies only two, one another two or more than two persons:
He had never heard his father or his mother speak in an angry voice, either to
each other, himself, or anybody else. (Galsworth’y)
Seated in a row close to one another were three ladies — Aunts Ann, Hester
(the two Forsyte maids), and Julie (short for Julia)... (Galsworthy)
It must be mentioned that this distinction is not always strictly observed:
I should have been surprised if those two could have thought very highly of
one another. (Dickens)
2. Reciprocal pronouns have two case forms.
Girls banged into each other and stamped on each other’s feet. (Mansfield)
The common case of reciprocal pronouns is used as an object.
The men were not grave and dignified. They lost their tempers easily and
called one another names... (London)
Elizabeth and George talked and found each other delightful. (Aldington)
The genitive case of reciprocal pronouns may be used as an attribute.
At first it struck me that I might live by selling my works to the ten per cent
who were like myself; but a moment’s reflection showed me that these must
all be as penniless as I, and that we could not live by, so to speak, taking in
one another’s washing. (Shaw)
Not until moon and stars faded away and streaks of daylight began to appear,
did Meitje Brinker and Hans look hopelessly into each other’s face. (Dodge)
Reciprocal pronouns preceded by a preposition are used as a prepositional indirect object:
They look at one another for a moment. (Dickens)
...in silence they stared at each other. (Saxton)
§ 7. Demonstrative pronouns.
1. The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, such, (the) same.
The demonstrative pronouns this and that have two numbers: this — these; that — those.
This is used to point at what is nearer in time or space; that points at what is farther away in time or space.
He looked him over critically. “Yes, this boy might do,” he thought. (Dreiser)
“I like that fellow,” Henry Waterman confided to his brother the moment
Frank had gone with instructions to report the following morning. (Dreiser)
This and that may be applied both to persons and things.
And this girl was French, not likely to lose her head, or accept any
unlegalized position. (Galsworthy)
Other people were anxious to get this soap at this price. (Dreiser)
What do you think of that Belgian fellow, Profond? (Galsworthy)
To Forsyte imagination that house was now a sort of Chinese pill-box...
(Galsworthy)
The pronoun such.
She wore a red ribbon in her hair, and was the only one of the white company
who could boast of such a pronounced adornment. (Hardy)
The pronoun same is always used with the definite article.
The driver was a young man... wearing a dandy cap, drab jacket, breeches of
the same hue. (Hardy)
2.The demonstrative pronouns this and that are used as subjects, predicatives, objects, and attributes.
It’s all right, but I’d rather try my hand at brokerage, I think that appeals to
me. (Dreiser) (SUBJECT)
The only honest people — if they existed — were those who said: “This is
foul brutality...” (Aldington) (PREDICATIVE)
Tell me just how you did this. (Dreiser) (OBJECT)
“If that young fellow wanted a place, I’d give it to him,” he thought.
(Dreiser) (ATTRIBUTE)
The demonstrative pronoun that (those) may be used as a word-substitute:
But in thinking of his remaining guest, an expression like that of a cat who is
just going to purr stole over his (Swithin’s) old face. (Galsworthy)
The features (of young Jolyon) were certainly those of a Forsyte, but the
expression was more the introspective look of a student or philosopher.
(Galsworthy)
The pronoun such is used as subject, predicative, object, and attribute:
If any living man can manage this horse I can — I won’t say any living man
can do it — but if such has the power, I am here. (Hardy) (SUBJECT)
Her idolatry of this man was such that she herself almost feared it to be ill-
omened. (Hardy) (PREDICATIVE)
But such thoughts and visions did not prevent him from following Professor
Caldwell closely. (London) (ATTRIBUTE)
The pronoun (the) same usually performs the function of an attribute, but it may be used as subject, predicative, object:
We were in the same classes. (London) (ATTRIBUTE)
It is to be feared the same could not be said of you, were you to be called
hence. (Ch. Bronte) (SUBJECT)
Martin’s Sunday was the same as before. (London) (PREDICATIVE)
“May this young man do the same!” said Angel fervently. (Hardy) (OBJECT)
§ 8. Interrogative pronouns.
1. Interrogative pronouns are used in inquiry, to form special questions. They are: who, whose, what, which.
The interrogative pronoun who has the category of case: the nominative case is who, the objective case whom.
Who refers to human beings:
Slipping her hand under his arm, she said: “Who was that?” “He picked up
my handkerchief. We talked about pictures.” (Galsworthy)
What when not attributive usually refers to things but it may be applied to persons when one inquires about their occupation.
“What are you looking for, Tess?” the doctor called. “Hairpins,” she replied...
(London)
“What was he?” “A painter.” (Galsworthy)
Which has a selective meaning: it corresponds to the Russian ‘который из’ (an individual of the group). It may refer to persons and things.
The boys clasped each other suddenly in an agony of fright. “Which of us
does he mean?” gasped Huckleberry. (Twain)
Which side of the bed do you like, Mum? (Galsworthy)
The questions Who is he? What is he? Which is he? differ in their meaning. The first question inquires about the name or parentage of some person. The second question inquires about the occupation of the person spoken about. The third question inquires about some particular person out of a definite group of persons.
2. In the sentence interrogative pronouns may have different functions — those of subject, predicative, object, and attribute:
Who, do you think, has been to see you, Dad? She couldn’t wait! Guess.
(Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
“What’s been happening, then?” he said sharply. (Eliot) (SUBJECT)
“No, who’s he?” “Oh, he’s a Polish Jew.” (Aldington) (PREDICATIVE)
“What are you, Mr. Mont, if I may ask?” “I, sir? I was going to be a painter.”
(Galsworthy) (PREDICATIVE)
“What was her father?” “Heron was his name, a Professor, so they tell me.”
(Galsworthy) (PREDICATIVE)
“He says he’s married,” said Winifred. “Whom to, for goodness’ sake?”
(Galsworthy) (OBJECT)
“Who do you mean?” I said. (Dn Maurier) (OBJECT)1
1 There is a tendency in Modern English to use who, instead of whom, as an object:
Z. If it doesn’t matter who anybody marries, then it doesn’t matter who I
marry and it doesn’t matter who you marry.
A. Whom, not who.
Z. Oh, speak English: you’re not on the telephone now. (Shaw)
“What did you see in Clensofantrim?” “Nothing but beauty, darling.”
(Galsworthy) (OBJECT)
“What sort of a quarrel?” he heard Fleur say. (Galsworthy) (ATTRIBUTE)
Whose pain can have been like mine? Whose injury is like mine? (Eliot)
(ATTRIBUTE)
Which day is it that Dorloote Mill is to be sold? (Eliot) (ATTRIBUTE)
§ 9. Relative pronouns.
1. Relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as) not only point back to a noun or a pronoun mentioned before but also have conjunctive power. They introduce attributive clauses. The word they refer to is called their antecedent. It may be a noun or a pronoun.
Who is used in reference to human beings or animals.
Jolyon bit his lips; he who had always hated rows almost welcomed the
thought of one now. (Galsworthy)
...in his voice was a strange note of fear that frightened the animal, who had
never known the man speak in such way before. (London)
Whose is mainly used in reference to human beings or animals but it may be applied to things.
Then there was the proud Rychie Korbes, whose father, Mynheer van Korbes,
was one of the leading men of Amsterdam. (Dodge)
Again he (Soames) looked at her (Irene), huddled like a bird that is shot and
dying, whose poor breast you see panting as the air is taken from it, whose
poor eyes look at you who have shot it, with a slow, soft, unseeing look...
(Galsworthy)
...he (superintendent) wore a stiff standing-collar whose upper edge almost
reached his ears, and whose sharp points curved forward abreast the corners
of his mouth... (Twain)
Which is used in reference to things and animals.
Here was her own style — a bed which did not look like one and many
mirrors. (Galsworthy)
They strove to steal a dog — the fattest, which was very thin — but I shoved
my pistol in their faces and told them begone. (London)
That is mainly used in reference to animals and things. It may also be used in reference to human beings.
This... gave him much the same feeling a man has when a dog that he owns
wriggles and looks at him. (Galsworthy)
On one side was a low wall that separated it from the street. (London)
In the factory quarter, doors were opening everywhere, and he was soon one
of a multitude that pressed onward through the dark. (London)
As usually introduces attributive clauses when the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause (it is a rare case when’as is used without such in the principal clause).
As may refer to living beings and things.
...perhaps the books were right and there were many such as she (Ruth) in the
upper walks of life. (London)
His mother was a poor peasant woman, too poor even to think of such a thing
as buying skates for her little ones. (Dodge)
For nobody’s ever heard me say as it wasn’t lucky for my children to have
aunts and uncles as can live independent. (Eliot)
...I went into Snow Park. It wasn’t as one expects a municipal park to be...
(Braine)
2. Relative pronouns can also refer to a clause (see Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence, § 8).
Relative pronouns always perform some syntactical function in the clause they introduce.
Gemma, there’s a man downstairs who wants to see you. (Vovnich)
(SUBJECT)
She flashed a look at him that was more anger than appeal. (London)
(SUBJECT)
...then discussion assumed that random volubility which
softens a decision
already forced on one. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
I think I have taken nothing that you or your people have given me.
(Galsworthy) (OBJECT)
Families often think it due to themselves to turn their back on newcomers,
whom they may not think quite enough for them. (Shaw) (OBJECT)
It pleased Denny to exert the full force of his irony upon the work which they
were doing. (Cronin) (OBJECT)
§ 10. Conjunctive pronouns.
1. Conjunctive pronouns (who, what, whose, which) not only point back to some person or thing mentioned before but also have conjunctive power, introducing subordinate clauses (subject clauses, object clauses, predicative clauses).1
1 See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence.
What June had taken for personal interest was only the impersonal excitement
of every Forsyte... (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT CLAUSE)
What you want, in fact, is a first-rate man for a fourth-rate fee, and that’s
exactly what you’ve got! (Galsworthy) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)
I don’t want to hear what you’ve come for. (Galsworthy) (OBJECT
CLAUSE)
2. In the clause they introduce they perform different functions, those of subject, predicative, attribute, object.
What had made her yield he could never make out; and from Mrs. Heron, a
woman of some diplomatic talent, he learnt nothing. (Galsworthy)
(SUBJECT)
Erik realized with a sinking sensation that Haviland didn’t know who he was.
(Wilson) (PREDICATIVE)
I’ve spent a lot of time in the chart-room now, and I’m on the edge of
knowing my way about, what charts I want to refer to, what coasts I want to
explore. (London) (ATTRIBUTE)
What Savina could no longer do for him, he did himself, and brutally brushed
aside all other interests except her. (Wilson) (OBJECT)
§ 11. Defining pronouns.
The defining pronouns are: all, each, every, everybody, everyone, everything, either, both, other, another.
1. All is a generalizing pronoun, it takes a group of things or persons as a whole.
All may be used as subject, predicative, object, and attribute.
...when all is said and done... (London) (SUBJECT)
He just loved me, that is all. (London) (PREDICATIVE)
And Martin forgot all about it. (London) (OBJECT)
...if all the doors are closed... (London) (ATTRIBUTE)
2. Both points out two persons, things or notions mentioned before.
“But there is more to be said,” he continued, after a pause painful to both.
(London)
You can study French, or you can study German, or cut them both out and
study Esperanto... (London)
The pronoun both may be used as subject, object, and attribute.
Both seemed to implore something to shelter them from reality. (Hardy)
(SUBJECT)
The light, admitted by windows at both ends, was unfortunately not Chinese.
(Galsworthy) (ATTRIBUTE)
When preceded by a preposition both may be used as a prepositional indirect object.
He invariably paid the way for both, and it was through him that Martin
learned the refinement of food. (London)
3. Each, every, everybody, everyone, everything.
Each and every refer to all the members of the group of persons, things, or notions mentioned before and taken one by one. When used as subject, each etc. require a verb in the singular.
Each may be used as subject, object, and attribute.
The train coming in a minute later, the two brothers parted and entered their
respective compartments. Each felt aggrieved that the other had not modified
his habits to secure his society a little longer. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
He paid a dollar each. (London) (OBJECT)
It (a blackbird) started singing as I looked out of the window, ending each
phrase abruptly as if jout of breath, a curiously amateur effect. (Braine)
(ATTRIBUTE)
When preceded by a preposition each may be used as a prepositional indirect object:
They began to deal swiftly with the cocoa tins, slipping a stick of dynamite in
each. (Cronin)
Every is used only as an attribute:
This is something more than genius. It is true, every line of it. (London)
Everybody, everyone refer to all the members of the group of persons mentioned before or taken one by one.
The pronouns everybody, everyone have two cases: the common case and the genitive case.
The common case may be used as subject and object.
You walked into the waiting-room, into a great buzz of conversation, and
there was everybody; you knew almost everybody. (Mansfield) (SUBJECT,
OBJECT)
The genitive case of the pronouns everyone and everybody is used as an attribute.
...he almost forgot the nearly intolerable discomfort of his new clothes in the
entirely intolerable discomfort of being set up as a target for everybody’s
gaze and everybody’s laudations. (Twain)
When preceded by a preposition everyone and everybody may be used as a prepositional indirect object.
How know? And without knowing how give such pain to everyone?
(Galsworthy)
Everything may be applied to things, animals and abstract notions. In the sentence it is used as subject, predicative, and object.
No one will see us. Pull down that veil and everything will be all right.
(London) (SUBJECT)
Of course, class is everything, really. (Galsworthy) (PREDICATIVE)
He was not long in assuming that Brissenden knew everything. (London)
(OBJECT)
4. Either has two meanings: (a) each of the two, (b) one or the other.
The trail wasn’t three feet wide on the crest, and on either side the ridge fell
away in precipices hundreds of feet deep. (London)
Then he remembered the underwriters and the owners, the two masters a
captain must serve, either of which could and would break him and whose
interests were diametrically opposed. (London)
In the sentence either is usually used as attribute or part of the subject (see the above examples).
5. Other, another. Other denotes some object different from the one mentioned before.
Other has two numbers: singular — other; plural — others. It has two cases: the common case and the genitive case (other’s, others’).
He walked at the other’s heels with a swing to his shoulders and his legs
spread unwittingly... (London)
In the sentence it is used as subject, object, and attribute.
After tea the others went off to bathe... (Mansfield) (SUBJECT)
When he brought his suitcase down into the hall, Isabel left the others and
went over to him. (Mansfield) (OBJECT)
But the circumstance was sufficient to lead him to select Tess in preference to
the other pretty milkmaids. (Hardy) (ATTRIBUTE)
When preceded by a preposition it may be used as a prepositional indirect object:
You are not fair to the others. (Voynich)
Another has two meanings: (1) ‘a different one’, (2) ‘an additional one’.
He has learnt sheep-farming at another place, and he’s now mastering dairy
work. (Hardy)
Yes, thought Soames, another year of London and that sort of life, and she’ll
be spoiled. (Galsworthy)
Another may be used as subject, object, and attribute.
The lantern hanging at her wagon had gone out but