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another was shining in
her face much brighter than her own had been. (Hardy) (SUBJECT)
Often among the women he met, he would see now one, now another,
looking at him, appraising him, selecting him. (London) (OBJECT)
Now I won’t say another word. I am overwhelmed, crushed. (London)
(ATTRIBUTE)
§ 12. Indefinite pronouns.
Indefinite pronouns point out some person or thing indefinitely. The indefinite pronouns are some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, something, anything, one.
The pronouns somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, one have two cases: the common case and the genitive case.
1. Some is chiefly used in affirmative sentences while any is used in negative and interrogative sentences and. in conditional clauses.
We spread down some wide blankets. (O. Henry)
But his chief trouble was that he did not know any editors or writers.
(London)
Do you see any sign of his appreciating beauty? (Galsworthy)
If you have any new books, show them to me please.
When used with nouns of material some and any have the meaning of indefinite quantity.
Now run along and get some candy, and don’t forget to give some to your brothers and sisters. (London)
Some, not any, is used in special and general questions expressing some request or proposal.
“Do you want some water?” “No, I don’t want any water.” (Maltz)
Some may have the meaning of ‘certain’ (некоторые) before a noun in the plural.
You have some queer customers. Do you like this life? (Galsworthy)
Any may be used in affirmative sentences with the meaning of ‘every’ (любой).
Above a square-domed forehead he saw a mop of brown hair... nut-brown,
with a wave to it and hints of curls that were a delight to any woman...
(London)
Somebody, someone, something are chiefly used in affirmative sentences.
He wanted someone young, you know a dark Spanish type... (Mansfield)
I want to say something. (Galsworthy)
Anybody, anyone, anything are used in negative and interrogative sentences and in conditional clauses.
I don’t want anything. (Voynich)
Is there anything between him and Annette? (Galsworthy)
If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the question would
have seemed to him both ridiculous and sentimental. (Galsworthy)
If Erik was ever to do anything of importance he would have to find a third
way. (Wilson)
Somebody, someone, something are used in special and general questions if they express some request or proposal.
Will someone help me?
Anyone, anybody, anything may be used in affirmative sentences. Anyone, anybody are used with the meaning of ‘everyone’ (любой); anything is used with the meaning of ‘everything’ (что угодно).
“You’ve no business to say such a thing!” she exclaimed. “Why not?
Anybody can see it.” (Galsworthy)
There is a limit to what anyone can bear. (Voynich)
...she sank in spirit inwardly and fluttered feebly at the heart as she thought of
entering anyone of these mighty concerns and asking for something to do —
something that she could do — anything. (Dreiser)
2. The indefinite pronouns some and any may be used as subject, object and attribute.
Some say the world will end in fire.
Some say in ice. (Frost) (SUBJECT)
“I watch the fire — and the boiling and the roasting — ” “When there is any,”
says Mr. George, with great expression. (Dickens) (SUBJECT)
...and his attention slid at once from such finality to the dust motes in the
bluish sunlight coming in. Thrusting his hand up he tried to catch some.
(Galsworthy) (OBJECT)
Where is his home? He didn’t have any. (Maltz) (
OBJECT)
Are there any real Indians in the woods? (0. Henry) (ATTRIBUTE)
Someone, anyone, somebody, anybody, something, anything may be used as subject, predicative, or object. When used as a subject they require a verb in the singular.
In the next house someone was playing over and over again “La donna è
mobile” on an untuned piano. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
...What he likes is anything except art. (Aldington) (PREDICATIVE)
And not merely did he not know any writers, but he did not know anybody
who had ever attempted to write. (London) (OBJECT)
The genitive case of the pronouns somebody, someone! anybody, anyone is used as an attribute:
...he could pull his cap down over his eyes and screen himself behind
someone’s shoulder. (London)
“It’s anybody’s right,” Martin heard somebody saying. (London)
...I looked up; I was in somebody’s arms. (Shaw)
When preceded by a preposition the pronouns somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything may be used as prepositional indirect objects.
The girl doesn’t belong to anybody — is no use to anybody but me. (Shaw)
Such a purse had never been carried by any one attentive to her. (Dreiser)
So, though he wasn’t very successful at anything, he got along all right.
(Aldington)
3. The indefinite-personal pronoun one is often used in the sense of any person or every person.
New York presents so many temptations for one to run into extravagance. (O.
Henry)
The indefinite pronoun one is often used in a general sense.
...Only one with constitution of iron could have held himself down, as Martin
did. (London)
The pronoun one may be used in the genitive case:
I know exactly what it feels like to be held down on one’s back. (Galsworthy)
One may be used as a word-substitute:
I was looking at them, and also at intervals examining the teachers — none of
whom precisely pleased me; for the stout one was a little coarse, the dark one
not a little fierce. (Ch. Bronte)
As a word-substitute one may be used in the plural:
Some of the gentlemen were gone to the stables; the younger ones, together
with the younger ladies, were playing billiards in the billiard room. (Ch.
Bronte)
§ 13. Negative pronouns.
Most of the indefinite pronouns correspond to negative pronouns: some — no, none; something — nothing, none; somebody, someone — nobody, no one, none.
Some defining pronouns also correspond to negative pronouns: everything — nothing; all, everybody, every, each — no, none, nobody; both, either — neither.
1. The negative pronoun no is used only before a noun as its attribute.
No dreams were possible in Dufton, where the snow seemed to turn black
almost before it hit the ground. (Braine)
No Forsyte can stand it for a minute. (Galsworthy)
The negative pronoun none may be applied both to human beings and things.
None of us — none of us can hold on for ever! (Galsworthy)
... he took the letters from the gilt wire cage into which they had been thrust
through the slit in the door. None from Irene. (Galsworthy)
It can be used as subject or object.
In this he would make little fires, and cook the birds he had not shot with his
gun, hunting in the coppice and fields, or the fish he did not catch in the pond
because there were none. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
...besides, it required woods and animals, of which he had none in his nursery
except his two cats... (Galsworthy) (OBJECT)
2. The negative pronouns nobody, no one refer to human beings. They correspond to the indefinite pronouns somebody, someone and to the defining pronouns all, every, each, everybody.
The negative pronoun nobody
may be used in the genitive case: nobody’s.
The negative pronouns nobody and no one are mostly used as subjects and objects.
Nobody seemed to know him well. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
He remembered the days of his desperate starvation when no one invited him
to dinner. (London) (SUBJECT)
I told you once that I have no one in the world but you. (Voynich) (OBJECT)
We’d have nobody to fight the war. (Heym) (OBJECT)
The pronoun nobody in the genitive case is used as an attribute.
Now Mr. Pullet never rode anything taller than a low pony, and was the least
predatory of men, considering fire-arms dangerous, as apt to go off
themselves by nobody’s particular desire. (Eliot)
The pronouns nobody, no one preceded by a preposition are used as prepositional indirect objects.
Among all the crowd who came and went here, there and everywhere, she
cared for nobody. (Galsworthy)
3. The negative pronoun nothing refers to things. It is opposite to the indefinite pronoun something and to the defining pronoun everything.
And nothing of vital importance had happened after that till the year turned.
(Galsworthy)
Nothing may be used as subject, predicative, or object.
There is nothing to worry about. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
“Now, look here, Marian, this is nothing but nonsense,” Martin began.
(London) (PREDICATIVE)
...she brought nothing with her but the feeling of adventure. (Galsworthy)
(OBJECT)
When preceded by a preposition nothing may be used as a prepositional indirect object:
On that train he thought of nothing but Lilly. (Wilson)
The negative pronoun neither is opposite to the defining pronouns either, both.
Neither of them answered; but their faces seemed to him as if contemptuous.
(Galsworthy)
In the sentence it may be used as subject, object, and attribute.
Neither was wise enough to be sure of the working of the mind of the other.
(Dreiser) (SUBJECT)
I like neither of them. (OBJECT)
We approved neither plan. (ATTRIBUTE)
The negative pronouns nobody, no one, nothing are singular in meaning and when they are used as the subject of the sentence they require a verb in the singular (see the above examples).
Chapter V
THE NUMERAL
§ 1. The numeral is a part of speech which indicates number or the order of persons and things in a series.
Accordingly numerals are divided into cardinals (cardinal numerals) and ordinals (ordinal numerals).
§ 2. Cardinal numerals.
Cardinal numerals indicate exact number, they are used in counting. As to their structure, the cardinal numerals from 1 to 12 and 100, 1000, 1,000,000 are simple words (one, two, three, etc., hundred, thousand, million); those from 13 to 19 are derivatives with the suffix ‑teen (thirteen, fourteen, etc.); the cardinal numerals indicating tens are formed by means of the suffix ‑ty (twenty, thirty, etc.). The numerals from 21 to 29, from 31 to 39, etc. are composite: twenty-two, thirty-five, etc.
N o t e 1. — Twenty-two, thirty-five, etc. are spelt with a hyphen.
N o t e 2. — In two hundred and twenty-three, four hundred and sixteen etc.
there must be the word and after the word hundred.
Such cardinal numerals as hundred, thousand, million may be used with articles (a hundred, a thousand, a million); they may be substantivized and used in the plural (hundreds, thousands, millions). When used after other numerals they do not take ‑s (two hundred times, thirty thousand years etc.). The word million may be used with or without ‑s (two million, two millions). When the word million is followed by some other cardinal numeral only the first variant is possible: two million five hundred inhabitants.
§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence.
Cardinal numerals are used in the function of subject, predicative, object, adverbial modifier and attribute (apposition).
...the young man opposite had long since disappeared. Now the other two got
out. (Mansfield) (SUBJECT)
Earle Fox was only fifty-four, but he felt timeless and ancient. (Wilson)
(PREDICATIVE)
And again she saw them, but not four, more like forty laughing, sneering,
jeering... (Mansfield) (OBJECT)
At eight the gang sounded for supper. (Mansfield) (ADVFRBIAL
MODIFIER)
Four men in their shirt-sleeves stood grouped together on the garden path. (
Mansfield) (ATTRIBUTE)
And he remembered the holidays they used to have the four of them, with a
little girl, Rose, to look after the babies. (Mansfield) (APPOSITION)
Cardinals are sometimes used to denote the place of an object in a series. Cardinals are used in reading indications: line 23, page 275, Chapter X, No. 49, etc.
...but from the corner of the street until she came to No. 26 she thought of
those four flights of stairs. (Mansfield)
Class nouns modified by a numeral in post-position are used without articles.
All he wanted was to be made to care again, but each night he took up his
briefcase and walked home to dinner at 117th Street and Riverside Drive,
apartment 12D. (Wilson)
§ 4. Ordinal numerals.
Ordinal numerals show the order of persons and things in a series.
With the exception of the first three (first, second, third) the ordinal numerals are formed from cardinal numerals by means of the suffix ‑th.
In ordinal groups only the last member of the group takes the ordinal form: (the) sixty-fifth, (the) twenty-third. Ordinal numerals are generally used with the definite article (the first, the fifth, the tenth, etc.). Ordinal numerals may be used with the indefinite article when they do not show a definite order of persons and things in a series:
“I’ve torn simply miles and miles of the frill,” wailed a third. (Mansfield)
§ 5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.
As a rule ordinal numerals are used as attributes.
“No, this is my first dance,” she said. (Mansfield)
Almost immediately the band started and her second partner seemed to spring
from the ceiling. (Mansfield)
But they may also be used as subject, as predicative and as object.
Then, advancing obliquely towards us, came a fifth. (Wells) (SUBJECT)
Sooner or later, someone is going to tell you about that damned river, so I
might as well be the first. (Wilson) (PREDICATIVE)
...she noted a scar on his cheek, another that peeped out from under the hair of
the forehead, and a third that ran down and disappeared under the starched
collar. (London) (OBJECT)
In fractional numbers the numerator is a cardinal and the denominator is a substantivized ordinal: two-thirds, three-sixths.
Decimal fractions are read in the following way: 7.58 — seven point (decimal) five eight.
Chapter VI
THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE
§ 1. The words of the category of state denote the temporary state or condition of persons or things.
But Johnny and Paddy were asleep, the rose-red glow had paled, bats were
flying, and still the bathers had not returned. (Mansfield)
Crearer said, “I’m afraid, General, we have to rely on the appeal of the
leaflet.” (Heym)
§ 2. As regards form the words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake, etc.
§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative.
“He is awake!” Sally cried. (Saxton)
That was all right in the daytime, but while Alice was putting her to bed she
grew suddenly afraid. (Mansfield)
When he got into bed, he was sure he’d never fall asleep, and yet he was dog-
tired. (Wilson).
...but at the first double knock every window in the street became alive with
female heads.
(Dickens)
Words of the category of state may be used as objective predicatives.
She was saying that she intended to leave him entirely alone again. (Wilson)
Words of the category of state may be sometimes used as attributes. But unlike adjectives they cannot be placed before the words they modify. As attributes they may be only used in post-position:
The father and mother dolls, who sprawled very stiff as though they had
fainted in the drawing-room, and their two little children asleep upstairs were
really too big for the doll’s house. (Mansfield)
§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of degree:
Sally, who had been half asleep with her head on Eddie’s lap, woke up and
began chanting. (Saxton)
Mrs. Gamp’s curtains were drawn close, and Mrs. Gamp was fast asleep.
(Dickens).
He immediately came fully awake. (Heym)
Words of the category of state may take prepositional indirect objects.
“You were afraid of the war?”she asked compassionately. (Heym)
...but at the first double knock every window in the street became alive with
female head.(Dickens)
“Merry,” cried that more prudent damsel, “really I am ashamed of you.”
(Dickens)
Chapter VII
THE VERB
§ 1. The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action. The verb has the following grammatical categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. These categories can be expressed by means of affixes, inner flexion (change of the root vowel) and by form words.
Verbs may be transitive and intransitive.
Verbs have finite forms which can be used as the predicate of a sentence and non-finite forms which cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence.
§ 2. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
(a) simple (read, live, hide, speak);
(b) derived, i. e. having affixes (magnify, fertilize, captivate, undo, decompose);
(c) compound, i. e. consisting of two stems (daydream, browbeat);
(d) composite, consisting of a verb and a postposition of adverbial origin (sit down, go away, give up).
The postposition often changes the meaning of the verb with which it is associated. Thus, there are composite verbs whose meaning is different from the meaning of their components: to give up — бросать, прекращать; to bring up — воспитывать; to do away — ликвидировать.
There are other composite verbs in which the original meaning of its components is preserved: to stand up, to come in, to go out, to put on.
§ 3. The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are: the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and
her face much brighter than her own had been. (Hardy) (SUBJECT)
Often among the women he met, he would see now one, now another,
looking at him, appraising him, selecting him. (London) (OBJECT)
Now I won’t say another word. I am overwhelmed, crushed. (London)
(ATTRIBUTE)
§ 12. Indefinite pronouns.
Indefinite pronouns point out some person or thing indefinitely. The indefinite pronouns are some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, something, anything, one.
The pronouns somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, one have two cases: the common case and the genitive case.
1. Some is chiefly used in affirmative sentences while any is used in negative and interrogative sentences and. in conditional clauses.
We spread down some wide blankets. (O. Henry)
But his chief trouble was that he did not know any editors or writers.
(London)
Do you see any sign of his appreciating beauty? (Galsworthy)
If you have any new books, show them to me please.
When used with nouns of material some and any have the meaning of indefinite quantity.
Now run along and get some candy, and don’t forget to give some to your brothers and sisters. (London)
Some, not any, is used in special and general questions expressing some request or proposal.
“Do you want some water?” “No, I don’t want any water.” (Maltz)
Some may have the meaning of ‘certain’ (некоторые) before a noun in the plural.
You have some queer customers. Do you like this life? (Galsworthy)
Any may be used in affirmative sentences with the meaning of ‘every’ (любой).
Above a square-domed forehead he saw a mop of brown hair... nut-brown,
with a wave to it and hints of curls that were a delight to any woman...
(London)
Somebody, someone, something are chiefly used in affirmative sentences.
He wanted someone young, you know a dark Spanish type... (Mansfield)
I want to say something. (Galsworthy)
Anybody, anyone, anything are used in negative and interrogative sentences and in conditional clauses.
I don’t want anything. (Voynich)
Is there anything between him and Annette? (Galsworthy)
If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the question would
have seemed to him both ridiculous and sentimental. (Galsworthy)
If Erik was ever to do anything of importance he would have to find a third
way. (Wilson)
Somebody, someone, something are used in special and general questions if they express some request or proposal.
Will someone help me?
Anyone, anybody, anything may be used in affirmative sentences. Anyone, anybody are used with the meaning of ‘everyone’ (любой); anything is used with the meaning of ‘everything’ (что угодно).
“You’ve no business to say such a thing!” she exclaimed. “Why not?
Anybody can see it.” (Galsworthy)
There is a limit to what anyone can bear. (Voynich)
...she sank in spirit inwardly and fluttered feebly at the heart as she thought of
entering anyone of these mighty concerns and asking for something to do —
something that she could do — anything. (Dreiser)
2. The indefinite pronouns some and any may be used as subject, object and attribute.
Some say the world will end in fire.
Some say in ice. (Frost) (SUBJECT)
“I watch the fire — and the boiling and the roasting — ” “When there is any,”
says Mr. George, with great expression. (Dickens) (SUBJECT)
...and his attention slid at once from such finality to the dust motes in the
bluish sunlight coming in. Thrusting his hand up he tried to catch some.
(Galsworthy) (OBJECT)
Where is his home? He didn’t have any. (Maltz) (
OBJECT)
Are there any real Indians in the woods? (0. Henry) (ATTRIBUTE)
Someone, anyone, somebody, anybody, something, anything may be used as subject, predicative, or object. When used as a subject they require a verb in the singular.
In the next house someone was playing over and over again “La donna è
mobile” on an untuned piano. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
...What he likes is anything except art. (Aldington) (PREDICATIVE)
And not merely did he not know any writers, but he did not know anybody
who had ever attempted to write. (London) (OBJECT)
The genitive case of the pronouns somebody, someone! anybody, anyone is used as an attribute:
...he could pull his cap down over his eyes and screen himself behind
someone’s shoulder. (London)
“It’s anybody’s right,” Martin heard somebody saying. (London)
...I looked up; I was in somebody’s arms. (Shaw)
When preceded by a preposition the pronouns somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything may be used as prepositional indirect objects.
The girl doesn’t belong to anybody — is no use to anybody but me. (Shaw)
Such a purse had never been carried by any one attentive to her. (Dreiser)
So, though he wasn’t very successful at anything, he got along all right.
(Aldington)
3. The indefinite-personal pronoun one is often used in the sense of any person or every person.
New York presents so many temptations for one to run into extravagance. (O.
Henry)
The indefinite pronoun one is often used in a general sense.
...Only one with constitution of iron could have held himself down, as Martin
did. (London)
The pronoun one may be used in the genitive case:
I know exactly what it feels like to be held down on one’s back. (Galsworthy)
One may be used as a word-substitute:
I was looking at them, and also at intervals examining the teachers — none of
whom precisely pleased me; for the stout one was a little coarse, the dark one
not a little fierce. (Ch. Bronte)
As a word-substitute one may be used in the plural:
Some of the gentlemen were gone to the stables; the younger ones, together
with the younger ladies, were playing billiards in the billiard room. (Ch.
Bronte)
§ 13. Negative pronouns.
Most of the indefinite pronouns correspond to negative pronouns: some — no, none; something — nothing, none; somebody, someone — nobody, no one, none.
Some defining pronouns also correspond to negative pronouns: everything — nothing; all, everybody, every, each — no, none, nobody; both, either — neither.
1. The negative pronoun no is used only before a noun as its attribute.
No dreams were possible in Dufton, where the snow seemed to turn black
almost before it hit the ground. (Braine)
No Forsyte can stand it for a minute. (Galsworthy)
The negative pronoun none may be applied both to human beings and things.
None of us — none of us can hold on for ever! (Galsworthy)
... he took the letters from the gilt wire cage into which they had been thrust
through the slit in the door. None from Irene. (Galsworthy)
It can be used as subject or object.
In this he would make little fires, and cook the birds he had not shot with his
gun, hunting in the coppice and fields, or the fish he did not catch in the pond
because there were none. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
...besides, it required woods and animals, of which he had none in his nursery
except his two cats... (Galsworthy) (OBJECT)
2. The negative pronouns nobody, no one refer to human beings. They correspond to the indefinite pronouns somebody, someone and to the defining pronouns all, every, each, everybody.
The negative pronoun nobody
may be used in the genitive case: nobody’s.
The negative pronouns nobody and no one are mostly used as subjects and objects.
Nobody seemed to know him well. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
He remembered the days of his desperate starvation when no one invited him
to dinner. (London) (SUBJECT)
I told you once that I have no one in the world but you. (Voynich) (OBJECT)
We’d have nobody to fight the war. (Heym) (OBJECT)
The pronoun nobody in the genitive case is used as an attribute.
Now Mr. Pullet never rode anything taller than a low pony, and was the least
predatory of men, considering fire-arms dangerous, as apt to go off
themselves by nobody’s particular desire. (Eliot)
The pronouns nobody, no one preceded by a preposition are used as prepositional indirect objects.
Among all the crowd who came and went here, there and everywhere, she
cared for nobody. (Galsworthy)
3. The negative pronoun nothing refers to things. It is opposite to the indefinite pronoun something and to the defining pronoun everything.
And nothing of vital importance had happened after that till the year turned.
(Galsworthy)
Nothing may be used as subject, predicative, or object.
There is nothing to worry about. (Galsworthy) (SUBJECT)
“Now, look here, Marian, this is nothing but nonsense,” Martin began.
(London) (PREDICATIVE)
...she brought nothing with her but the feeling of adventure. (Galsworthy)
(OBJECT)
When preceded by a preposition nothing may be used as a prepositional indirect object:
On that train he thought of nothing but Lilly. (Wilson)
The negative pronoun neither is opposite to the defining pronouns either, both.
Neither of them answered; but their faces seemed to him as if contemptuous.
(Galsworthy)
In the sentence it may be used as subject, object, and attribute.
Neither was wise enough to be sure of the working of the mind of the other.
(Dreiser) (SUBJECT)
I like neither of them. (OBJECT)
We approved neither plan. (ATTRIBUTE)
The negative pronouns nobody, no one, nothing are singular in meaning and when they are used as the subject of the sentence they require a verb in the singular (see the above examples).
Chapter V
THE NUMERAL
§ 1. The numeral is a part of speech which indicates number or the order of persons and things in a series.
Accordingly numerals are divided into cardinals (cardinal numerals) and ordinals (ordinal numerals).
§ 2. Cardinal numerals.
Cardinal numerals indicate exact number, they are used in counting. As to their structure, the cardinal numerals from 1 to 12 and 100, 1000, 1,000,000 are simple words (one, two, three, etc., hundred, thousand, million); those from 13 to 19 are derivatives with the suffix ‑teen (thirteen, fourteen, etc.); the cardinal numerals indicating tens are formed by means of the suffix ‑ty (twenty, thirty, etc.). The numerals from 21 to 29, from 31 to 39, etc. are composite: twenty-two, thirty-five, etc.
N o t e 1. — Twenty-two, thirty-five, etc. are spelt with a hyphen.
N o t e 2. — In two hundred and twenty-three, four hundred and sixteen etc.
there must be the word and after the word hundred.
Such cardinal numerals as hundred, thousand, million may be used with articles (a hundred, a thousand, a million); they may be substantivized and used in the plural (hundreds, thousands, millions). When used after other numerals they do not take ‑s (two hundred times, thirty thousand years etc.). The word million may be used with or without ‑s (two million, two millions). When the word million is followed by some other cardinal numeral only the first variant is possible: two million five hundred inhabitants.
§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence.
Cardinal numerals are used in the function of subject, predicative, object, adverbial modifier and attribute (apposition).
...the young man opposite had long since disappeared. Now the other two got
out. (Mansfield) (SUBJECT)
Earle Fox was only fifty-four, but he felt timeless and ancient. (Wilson)
(PREDICATIVE)
And again she saw them, but not four, more like forty laughing, sneering,
jeering... (Mansfield) (OBJECT)
At eight the gang sounded for supper. (Mansfield) (ADVFRBIAL
MODIFIER)
Four men in their shirt-sleeves stood grouped together on the garden path. (
Mansfield) (ATTRIBUTE)
And he remembered the holidays they used to have the four of them, with a
little girl, Rose, to look after the babies. (Mansfield) (APPOSITION)
Cardinals are sometimes used to denote the place of an object in a series. Cardinals are used in reading indications: line 23, page 275, Chapter X, No. 49, etc.
...but from the corner of the street until she came to No. 26 she thought of
those four flights of stairs. (Mansfield)
Class nouns modified by a numeral in post-position are used without articles.
All he wanted was to be made to care again, but each night he took up his
briefcase and walked home to dinner at 117th Street and Riverside Drive,
apartment 12D. (Wilson)
§ 4. Ordinal numerals.
Ordinal numerals show the order of persons and things in a series.
With the exception of the first three (first, second, third) the ordinal numerals are formed from cardinal numerals by means of the suffix ‑th.
In ordinal groups only the last member of the group takes the ordinal form: (the) sixty-fifth, (the) twenty-third. Ordinal numerals are generally used with the definite article (the first, the fifth, the tenth, etc.). Ordinal numerals may be used with the indefinite article when they do not show a definite order of persons and things in a series:
“I’ve torn simply miles and miles of the frill,” wailed a third. (Mansfield)
§ 5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.
As a rule ordinal numerals are used as attributes.
“No, this is my first dance,” she said. (Mansfield)
Almost immediately the band started and her second partner seemed to spring
from the ceiling. (Mansfield)
But they may also be used as subject, as predicative and as object.
Then, advancing obliquely towards us, came a fifth. (Wells) (SUBJECT)
Sooner or later, someone is going to tell you about that damned river, so I
might as well be the first. (Wilson) (PREDICATIVE)
...she noted a scar on his cheek, another that peeped out from under the hair of
the forehead, and a third that ran down and disappeared under the starched
collar. (London) (OBJECT)
In fractional numbers the numerator is a cardinal and the denominator is a substantivized ordinal: two-thirds, three-sixths.
Decimal fractions are read in the following way: 7.58 — seven point (decimal) five eight.
Chapter VI
THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE
§ 1. The words of the category of state denote the temporary state or condition of persons or things.
But Johnny and Paddy were asleep, the rose-red glow had paled, bats were
flying, and still the bathers had not returned. (Mansfield)
Crearer said, “I’m afraid, General, we have to rely on the appeal of the
leaflet.” (Heym)
§ 2. As regards form the words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake, etc.
§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative.
“He is awake!” Sally cried. (Saxton)
That was all right in the daytime, but while Alice was putting her to bed she
grew suddenly afraid. (Mansfield)
When he got into bed, he was sure he’d never fall asleep, and yet he was dog-
tired. (Wilson).
...but at the first double knock every window in the street became alive with
female heads.
(Dickens)
Words of the category of state may be used as objective predicatives.
She was saying that she intended to leave him entirely alone again. (Wilson)
Words of the category of state may be sometimes used as attributes. But unlike adjectives they cannot be placed before the words they modify. As attributes they may be only used in post-position:
The father and mother dolls, who sprawled very stiff as though they had
fainted in the drawing-room, and their two little children asleep upstairs were
really too big for the doll’s house. (Mansfield)
§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of degree:
Sally, who had been half asleep with her head on Eddie’s lap, woke up and
began chanting. (Saxton)
Mrs. Gamp’s curtains were drawn close, and Mrs. Gamp was fast asleep.
(Dickens).
He immediately came fully awake. (Heym)
Words of the category of state may take prepositional indirect objects.
“You were afraid of the war?”she asked compassionately. (Heym)
...but at the first double knock every window in the street became alive with
female head.(Dickens)
“Merry,” cried that more prudent damsel, “really I am ashamed of you.”
(Dickens)
Chapter VII
THE VERB
§ 1. The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action. The verb has the following grammatical categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. These categories can be expressed by means of affixes, inner flexion (change of the root vowel) and by form words.
Verbs may be transitive and intransitive.
Verbs have finite forms which can be used as the predicate of a sentence and non-finite forms which cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence.
§ 2. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
(a) simple (read, live, hide, speak);
(b) derived, i. e. having affixes (magnify, fertilize, captivate, undo, decompose);
(c) compound, i. e. consisting of two stems (daydream, browbeat);
(d) composite, consisting of a verb and a postposition of adverbial origin (sit down, go away, give up).
The postposition often changes the meaning of the verb with which it is associated. Thus, there are composite verbs whose meaning is different from the meaning of their components: to give up — бросать, прекращать; to bring up — воспитывать; to do away — ликвидировать.
There are other composite verbs in which the original meaning of its components is preserved: to stand up, to come in, to go out, to put on.
§ 3. The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are: the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and