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during the HIGHLAND CLEARANCES of large estates that began in the late 18th century. Crofters lived by harvesting kelp and fishing to augment their small farming output. In the 1880s their condition provoked some violent protest which led to an inquiry. The Crofter’s Act of 1886 improved the terms of their tenancy, and a Crofters’ Commission was established to guard their interests.

See also HIGHLAND CLEARANCES.

Cromer, Evelyn Baring, first earl of

(1841–1917)

diplomat, administrator

Born into a banking family, Lord Cromer entered military service (1858–72), then became private secretary to the VICEROY of INDIA, Lord Northbrook. He went to EGYPT in 1877 as commissioner in charge of finances, eventually becoming consul general (1883–1907). During his term there were serious crises in the SUDAN, from General Charles GORDON’s defeat at KHARTOUM (1885) to the diplomatic settlement of the FASHODA incident (1898). His Modern Egypt (2 vols., 1908) was an eyewitness account by an imperial consul.

Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658) general, lord protector

Born into a modest small gentry family, Cromwell was influenced by PURITANS at Cambridge and entered PARLIAMENT as a radical member for Cambridge in 1640. When the CIVIL WAR began he displayed a natural talent as a cavalry commander in the Eastern Association. His units played a key part in the victory at MARSTON MOOR (1644), but he was upset with the conduct of aristocratic leaders and helped to push

through the SELF-DENYING ORDINANCE the fol-

lowing winter. This removed peers and MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT (excepting himself and a few others) and reconstituted the ARMY as a NEW MODEL ARMY. It seemed to work, as the army routed King CHARLES I’s forces at NASEBY, with Cromwell as second in command.

After the king’s surrender in 1646, Cromwell became increasingly involved in the politics of

revolution. He was a leader of the party of “independents” who opposed both the king’s religion and that of the PRESBYTERIANs and their Scottish allies. He was also at the center of the political storm over the army’s arrears of pay, its demand for indemnity, and its fears for a future religious settlement. In 1647 the army captured Charles I, marched on LONDON, and presented a constitutional manifesto, the “Heads of the Proposals.” The still more radical army officers and men endorsed the LEVELLERS’ document, the “Agreement of the People,” and these contrasting views were debated in a public meeting at Putney, outside London, before the army council. These discussions were inconclusive, as Cromwell may have anticipated. But from late 1647 he took decisive action to stamp out a mutiny, put down royalist uprisings, and meet and crush an army coming from SCOTLAND in support of the king. Later in 1648 he had Colonel Thomas Pride purge the HOUSE OF COMMONS of its anti-army members, and the resulting RUMP PARLIAMENT went on to order the trial and execution of the king.

Cromwell led a campaign to conquer IRELAND in 1649 and then to Scotland in 1650–51. These conquests made him the obvious leader of the new military state, but he found it impossible to reconstruct a working constitution. First he fell out with the Rump; then a nominated PARLIA- MENT, made up of independent ministers (1653) proved uncontrollable. After producing a new constitution, naming himself as “lord protector” (1654), he summoned further parliaments with similar results. The basic issues—religion, finance, and foreign policy—were the same ones that plagued the STUART kings. Cromwell’s limited success as protector deserves some credit. He maintained army discipline; his limited toleration was a fundamental shift, however frustrating and incomplete; and his expenditure on the NAVY helped to set a foundation for future power. However, contemporary views of his rule were solidly negative. As a regicide, he could not produce a better scheme of government; as a general, he could only rule by force; and as spokesman for a “godly nation,” he stoked the flames of religious discord. He died in September 1658, and his son

Richard succeeded him as lord protector, but the regime soon collapsed.

See also COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND; DROG-

HEDA; DUNBAR, BATTLE OF; INSTRUMENT OF GOV-

ERNMENT; PRIDE’S PURGE.

Cromwell, Thomas (1485–1540) king’s secretary

Working for Cardinal WOLSEY, Cromwell was close to King HENRY VIII’s divorce proceedings, and when Wolsey fell from office in 1529, he was able to move into the king’s council. By 1534 he had become the king’s secretary. During this period he played an important part in preparing the clergy of ENGLAND for the king’s break with Rome. In 1532 he drafted the “Supplication of the Commons Against the Ordinaries,” a petition reviewing flaws in the clerical courts. This was used to force the church to agree to the SUBMISSION OF THE CLERGY, conceding that canons were subject to secular review. He may have convinced Henry that statute law offered a viable direction to implement his next steps. He drafted the Act in RESTRAINT OF APPEALS (1533), which cut off legal appeal to Rome; and the Act of Supremacy (1534), which acknowledged the king as supreme head of the church in England (see ROYAL SUPREMACY).

Cromwell became Henry’s chief agent in the new church, a position of precarious power. As vicar-general he took steps to promote reforms, including the DISSOLUTION of the monasteries; the 10 articles of religion and royal injunctions (1536, 1538); and campaigns against opponents such as Sir Thomas MORE. It was in this direction that Cromwell caused his own undoing. He used arbitrary acts of ATTAINDER to execute Anne BOLEYN, her household, and members of other high-ranking families. He also created a circle at court which was only too happy to overthrow him after he had promoted the disastrous marriage between Henry and ANNE OF CLEVES (1540). Declared a traitor by an act of attainder, he was executed in July 1540.

Crown See MONARCHY; PREROGATIVE, ROYAL.

crown colony See COLONY.

Crown Court

The first crown courts were created in Liverpool and Manchester (1956) and later absorbed in a national system of crown courts (1971) replac-

ing the ASSIZE courts and QUARTER SESSIONS.

They conduct trials on indictment, hear appeals from MAGISTRATEs’ courts, and have some civil appellate jurisdiction. Appeals lie to the Court of APPEAL (Criminal Division) and the HOUSE OF

LORDS.

Crystal Palace

The Great Exhibition of 1851, planned by Prince ALBERT, was housed in a radical structure in Hyde Park: a giant iron-and-glass conservatory designed by Joseph Paxton. The building was several times the length of ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, and it contained nearly 300,000 panes of glass. Itself one of the high points of the exhibition, at the end of the event it was dismantled and moved to Sydenham, in South LONDON. It was destroyed by fire in 1936.

Culloden, Battle of (1746)

In February 1746 the JACOBITES occupied Inverness, and as the duke of Cumberland advanced with an army of English and lowland Scots, they launched an unsuccessful surprise attack on the night of April 15. “Bonnie Prince Charlie” (Charles Edward STUART) chose to engage the duke’s army the next day, on an open moor, five miles from the city. The rebel force numbered about 5,000, and the king’s army 9,000 plus field artillery. That artillery shattered the Jacobite ranks, their subsequent advance was scattered, and the royal army routed them, losing only 50 men. The defeated prince fled to France; many of his men were pursued and, with the wounded, killed after the battle, earning the duke the nickname “the Butcher.”

See also MACDONALD, FLORA; HIGHLANDS; MUR-

RAY, LORD GEORGE; STUART, HOUSE OF.

Cumberland, William Augustus, duke of (1721–1765)

general

The third son of GEORGE II, William Augustus was trained for a naval career, but instead he became employed in the ARMY, gaining the rank of general in the War of AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION after fighting in the Battle of Dettingen (1744). In 1745 he took command of the army, repelling the JACOBITES’ invasion. At the Battle of CULLO- DEN (1746) he led the royal forces to victory, and after the battle his troops relentlessly hunted down the rebels, gaining him the nickname “the butcher.” PARLIAMENT, however, was quite satisfied with his performance, granting him a pension of £25,000 per annum. He returned to command forces on the continent but he was disgraced by a defeat at the hands of the French in 1757 and resigned from his posts.

Curragh mutiny (1914)

Curragh was the British ARMY station near DUBLIN, where in March 1914 some 57 officers of the third cavalry brigade declared that they would refuse orders to serve against ULSTER if it rejected the IRISH HOME RULE bill, set to become law momentarily. Sir John FRENCH, the army chief of staff, assured them that this would not be necessary. Herbert ASQUITH’s CABINET disagreed, and French and the war secretary J. E. B. Seely were forced to resign.

Curzon of Kedleston, George Nathaniel Curzon, first marquis

(1859–1925)

(Viscount Scarsdale, Baron Ravensdale) viceroy

An authority on the empire, especially Asia, Curzon was VICEROY of INDIA, 1898–1905, in which capacity he made a number of reforms.

After quarrels with General KITCHENER, commander of the Indian forces, he resigned. He later served in the CABINET as foreign secretary (1919–24), where he opposed the BALFOUR DEC- LARATION and supported a powerful British role in the Middle East.

customs and excise

The duties imposed on foreign and domestic products. Customs duties were levied at ports of entry as a tax or as a restraint on trade. The excise was a levy on classes of popular products, often alcohol and tobacco, but in earlier periods wool, salt, paper, glass, and other essential materials. Governments had to maintain increasing numbers of agents to collect these taxes, smuggling was a significant byproduct of the systems, and the incidence of such imposts added to the growth of support for FREE TRADE.

Cyprus

Island in the eastern Mediterranean, 60 miles west of Syria and 40 miles south of Turkey. A British PROTECTORATE was established in 1878; the island was annexed in 1914 and made a crown COLONY in 1925. The 80-percent majority Greek population demanded union with Greece, and rioting caused suspension of the legislative assembly in 1931. New constitutional plans were thwarted by a terrorist campaign. Talks were held (1957–60) that led to the foundation of the Republic of Cyprus in 1960. The Turkish minority set up its own assembly in northern Cyprus in 1970. In 1974 Turkish troops invaded, and a Turkish government was proclaimed in 1975. In 1983 a separate republic was declared. GREAT BRITAIN still supports reunification and has some troops stationed on the island along with United Nations peacekeepers.

Dáil Éireann

“Assembly of Ireland,” the name given to the lower house of the Irish parliament (the Oirechtas), proclaimed in 1919 and recognized in the constitution of the IRISH FREE STATE. The 166 members or deputies are elected on a system of proportional representation.

Dalhousie, James Andrew Broun Ramsay, first marquis

(1812–1860)

governor-general of India, 1848–1856

Lord Dalhousie was educated at Harrow and Christ Church, OXFORD UNIVERSITY. After briefly serving as president of the BOARD OF TRADE, he became governor-general of INDIA. He declared the Punjab a British province in 1849, and he was responsible for many improvements in roads, railways, ports, and schools. He made efforts to reduce the practices of suttee and female infanticide, as part of a campaign to remodel Indian culture. Under his direction, GREAT BRITAIN acquired territory in the Punjab, Oudh, and Lower BURMA. This was done by wars of annexation, sometimes exploiting the “doctrine of lapse” wherein the British assumed power when native rulers died without male heirs. Some critics blamed his policies for the tension that led to the INDIAN MUTINY (1857–58).

Dalrymple, James See STAIR, JAMES

DALRYMPLE, VISCOUNT.

Danby, Thomas Osborne, earl of

(1631–1712) statesman

A MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT for York in 1665, Lord Danby rose to become lord high treasurer (1673) and CHARLES II’s first minister. He built a court party by use of PATRONAGE, but he was caught up in contrary policies—for instance, the secret Treaty of DOVER with Louis XIV, which promised a French alliance versus the marriage between William of Orange (WILLIAM III) and Mary, the king’s niece (MARY II), which suggested a proDutch policy. At the time of the POPISH PLOT (1678), his involvement was exposed, and he was impeached and imprisoned (1679–84). After his release he enlisted with the opposition to JAMES VII AND II, and he served William III as chief minister from 1690 to 1695, at which time he was impeached for corruption.

Darby, Abraham (1677–1717) iron founder

The son of a Quaker farmer, Darby became partner in a brass works, and he brought Dutch brass founders to Bristol. In 1708 he patented a process for casting cheap iron in sand. He later developed a method for smelting iron with coke instead of charcoal, allowing lighter castings for hollow pieces. His works at Coalbrookdale became famous, and the first cast-iron bridge was built there in 1777.

Dardanelles campaign See GALLIPOLI.

Darien

The name given to the isthmus of Panama by Scottish colonizers, who settled New Caledonia there (1698–1700) under the auspices of the Company of Scotland. The company wanted to break the English EAST INDIA COMPANY monopoly, but the scheme failed due to opposition from ENGLAND and Spain, as well as problems of funding and management. A very large share of SCOT- LAND’s wealth had been invested, and there was increased bitterness toward England, although ironically the crisis probably spurred the UNION of 1707 as a remedy for Scottish economic malaise.

Darnley, Henry Stewart, earl of

(1545–1567)

father of James VI and I

A grandson of Margaret TUDOR, Darnley was married to MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS, in 1565. Mary refused to share her throne, and the frustrated Darnley was implicated in the murder of her Italian adviser, David RIZZIO (March 1566). The couple’s son James (later JAMES VI AND I) was born a few months later, but the relationship deteriorated. In February 1567 Darnley was strangled, and his lodging house was blown up. The queen and her new companion and later husband, James Hepburn, earl of BOTHWELL, were chief suspects.

darts

A game that probably began with throwing spears or arrows. The dartboard was only refined and standardized in the 19th century. When it was declared a game of skill in a court case in 1908, darts became a popular game in PUBs, as it was not subject to gaming laws. A National Darts Association was established in 1953, and the game has gained even greater popularity via television.

Darwin, Charles (1809–1882) scientist

The grandson of Erasmus DARWIN and son of a successful physician, Charles Darwin studied in

Sir Charles Darwin (Library of Congress)

EDINBURGH and at CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY but

turned away from a medical career. He began to collect specimens as his fascination with geology and botany increased. He took a place on the HMS Beagle for a voyage to chart Cape Horn, during which he collected specimens and made scientific observations (1831–36). He spent the following years analyzing his collections, and he wrote an essay in 1844 explaining his conclusions. However, it was only in 1859 that he published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, which explained his theory of evolution. His even more controversial study The Descent of Man appeared in 1871, wherein he showed how man had evolved from primates. His work was of fundamental importance in providing a scientific explanation for evolution. This was a revolutionary idea in Victorian society, and it was widely denounced by churchmen and

scientists alike. But Darwin did have his defenders, and the theory of evolution gained a solid foothold by the end of the century, while the concept of natural selection required several more generations for general acceptance.

See also HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY.

Darwin, Erasmus (1731–1802) physician, scientist

A doctor by training and zoologist by nature, Darwin was a leading 18th-century scientist. Declining an offer to become the royal physician to GEORGE III, he chose a career of study and writing. He organized a Philosophical Society in Derby and the Lunar Society of Birmingham. He wrote The Botanic Garden (1791) in verse, and his major prose work was Zoonomia, or Laws of Organic Life (1794–96), which studied and analyzed the evolutionary adaptations made by living organisms.

Davies, John (1569–1626)

BARRISTER who became solicitor general for IRELAND (1603) and then attorney general (1606). He worked to advance the royal policy of PLANTATION, especially by removing the remnants of the Celtic legal system. He produced the first printed law reports in Ireland, and he wrote a tract on the subjugation of the Irish: A Discoverie of the True Causes Why Ireland Was Never Entirely Subdued (1612). He also published a number of poems in classical style but on contemporary subjects (published in a collected edition by Robert Krueger, 1975).

Davies, Richard (1501–1581) bishop, translator

Born in North WALES, Davies studied at OXFORD UNIVERSITY and went into exile in the reign of MARY I, but after her death returned and was made BISHOP of St. Asaph (1560) and St. Davids (1561). He worked with William SALESBURY to translate the New Testament into Welsh (1567).

Davitt, Michael (1846–1906)

Irish nationalist

Born during the IRISH FAMINE, Davitt emigrated with his family to Lancashire. Working in a cotton mill there, he lost an arm in an industrial accident. He joined the FENIAN BROTHERHOOD and served time in jail. He decided that the Irish nationalist cause required the support of tenant farmers, and he formed the Irish Land League, with Charles Stewart PARNELL as president, in 1879. He favored LAND nationalization and IRISH HOME RULE, and he believed the latter cause was most likely to be achieved by the union with Parnell’s parliamentary group. Their partnership was shaken by the Parnell divorce scandal, but Davitt served as a Parnellite MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from 1895 to 1899. In his lifetime Davitt saw the IRISH LAND ACTS achieve much of the change he had fought for.

Davy, Sir Humphrey (1778–1829) chemist

Davy discovered by electrolysis the metallic elements sodium and potassium (1807), as well as magnesium, strontium, and barium (1808). He proved that chlorine is an element, and he argued the presence of hydrogen in all acids. His invaluable practical invention was the miner’s safety lamp for use in mines where methane was a safety hazard. He was a popular scientific lecturer, and he served as president of the ROYAL SOCIETY (1820–29).

Declaration of Independence (1776)

In July 1776 the Continental Congress of the AMERICAN COLONIES adopted the statement drafted by Thomas Jefferson (one of a committee of five) which contained a long indictment of GEORGE III, declaring that he was “a tyrant unfit to be the ruler of a free people.” The text was written partly with an eye to attracting an alliance with France. The declaration concluded that because of the evils of colonial administration, the connection between GREAT BRITAIN and the colonies was “totally dissolved.”

declaration of indulgence

A statement issued on several occasions by the later STUART kings, designed to suspend PENAL LAWS against Protestant dissenters and Roman Catholics (1662, 1672, 1687, 1688). The first attempt was withdrawn. The second was stoutly opposed as being illegal, and even though it was withdrawn, the TEST ACT was passed to ensure compliance with penal laws. The last two attempts precipitated the SEVEN BISHOPS’ CASE (1688) and the GLORIOUS REVOLUTION (1688–89). The fundamental question in all cases was whether or not the king had any power to reject a duly enacted law. The definitive answer in 1689 was “no.”

Declaration of Rights (1689)

After the flight of JAMES II, the prospective sovereigns WILLIAM III and MARY II were offered the crown by the Convention Parliament. That offer was accompanied by a declaration that stated grievances and terms for future conduct: frequent, freely elected parliaments; free speech and debate in PARLIAMENT; and power of parliament to tax, pass laws, and maintain an ARMY. When the Declaration of Rights was accepted by the king and queen, it was introduced into parliament as the BILL OF RIGHTS.

declaratory acts (1720, 1766)

On two occasions in the 18th century, PARLIA- MENT felt compelled to set down a statement of its constitutional authority—a declaratory act— with respect to related governmental entities. In 1720, in the wake of a long property dispute in IRELAND in which the Irish House of Lords used its presumed power to hear the case on appeal, the declaratory act stated that all such appeals would go to the lords in Westminster and that the British parliament had full power to enact laws for Ireland. This act was repealed in 1782.

In 1766, when repealing the STAMP ACT for the AMERICAN COLONIES, Parliament felt it was necessary to underscore its fundamental power

over the colonial governments and to deny the case made by the Stamp Act’s opponents. This declaratory act was effectively repealed by the Revolutionary War, which began in 1776.

Dee, John (1527–1608) astrologer, mathematician

Dee was prosecuted for sorcery under MARY I, but he became a scientific adviser to ELIZABETH I. He combined the study of mathematics and medicine with the more popular fields of astrology and alchemy.

Defence of the Realm Act (1914)

This act, which came at the very beginning of WORLD WAR I, gave the government “full power and authority” to conduct the war. This meant seizing property, imposing censorship, and controlling labor, all of which was backed by the power of courts-martial. This invasion of liberties was deemed necessary in the case of modern warfare. A peacetime version of the act was passed in 1920, while a wartime version was prepared in advance and quickly enacted in 1939 as WORLD WAR II broke out.

Defender of the Faith

Title conferred on HENRY VIII by Pope Leo X (1521) after the king had written a tract against Martin Luther entitled Assertio septem sacramentorum, or Defense of the Seven Sacraments. Since PARLIAMENT recognized the title in 1544, it has been borne by all British monarchs, apparently without any sense of irony. The title is represented by the initials “F.D.” (fidei defensor) on British coins.

Defoe, Daniel (1660–1731) author

A merchant and a dissenter, after some early adventures in politics (including an escape from Sedgmoor after MONMOUTH’S REBELLION), Defoe