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took up writing as a pamphleteer, a journalist, and then as a novelist. His mock-heroic TrueBorn Englishman (1701) poked fun at the emerging national identity of the English. His Shortest Way with the Dissenters (1702) satirized the bigotry of the high-church party and earned him time in prison for libel. His power as a writer was appreciated by political leaders who employed him as a propagandist. While he wrote Review of the Affairs of France (1704–13), he also reported on the progress of the act of UNION with SCOT- LAND (1707). His works of fiction included The Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1719), Moll Flanders (1722), and Journal of the Plague Year (1722). He also wrote a remarkable guide book called A Tour thro’ the Whole Island of Great Britain (1724–26).

de heretico comburendo (1382, 1401)

Statutes passed to punish the LOLLARDS, a group of reformers (i.e., heretics) who were followers of John WYCLIFFE. If convicted by the clerical courts, they would be handed over to civil authorities to be burned at the stake. Repealed in 1547, the act was revived briefly under MARY I (1554–59).

depression

An economic crisis marked by sharp declines in production, increases in unemployment, and widespread poverty and distress. When the economy grew beyond the level of local subsis- tence—that is, when it began to industrialize and engage in extensive overseas trade—this type of downturn in the business cycle became more dangerous. In the early years of industry there were many occasions of economic decline (1842, 1857, 1866) but historians have identified two periods that were of a magnitude beyond all others.

The years 1873 to 1896 have been called the “Great Depression,” due to declining prices, increased unemployment, bank failures, and losses in overseas markets. While it is true that eco-

nomic growth faltered in the period, those workers with jobs actually experienced an increase in real wages, and many began to benefit from cheap food imports. The better description of this period is as one of economic contraction, a process that was more severe in some sectors of the economy than others.

The economic collapse of the 1920s and 1930s was truly a “Great Depression.” For most of the earlier decade there had been a high level of unemployment, and there was only one brief period (1919–1921) of strong economic growth. WORLD WAR I had dislocated the world economy, and major industries like textiles, coal, steel, and shipbuilding were faced with shrinking markets and expanding competition. Unemployment, which had been around 10 percent, rose to more than twice that level after the Wall Street crash in 1929, and did not fall below 10 percent until WORLD WAR II. Governments were hampered by strict adherence to balanced budgets, but there were some attempts to alleviate distress and help industrial recovery.

Derby, Edward George Geoffrey Smith Stanley, 14th earl of

(1799–1869)

prime minister, 1852, 1858–1859, and 1866–1868

A member of PARLIAMENT from 1822, Lord Derby served in the TORY governments of the late 1820s and was then chief secretary for IRELAND in the WHIG ministry of 1830–33. He later entered the Tory cabinet of Robert PEEL as secretary for war and the colonies, but he resigned over the repeal of the CORN LAWS. Leading the protectionist wing of the party, he worked with Benjamin DISRAELI to rebuild the CONSERVATIVE PARTY. He went to the HOUSE OF LORDS in 1851 on inheriting the earldom, and he was PRIME MINISTER in three minority governments, the last being the one that passed the second REFORM ACT in 1867.

Desmond, earls of See FITZGERALD, EARLS

OF DESMOND.

Desmond Rebellion (1579–1583)

Gerald FITZGERALD, 15th earl of Desmond (1533–83), fought against the spread of English authority over family lands in southwest IRELAND. He had been imprisoned in ENGLAND for feuds with his stepson, James Butler, earl of ORMONDE, and he had sought aid from Catholic powers abroad. He was captured and executed, and his large estates were given to English settlers.

De Valera, Eamon (1882–1975)

Irish prime minister, 1932–1948, 1951–1954, 1957–1959

De Valera was the major figure in Irish republican politics for over half a century. Born in New York, he grew up in County Limerick and became a mathematics teacher. He joined the Irish Volunteers in 1913 and was an officer in the EASTER REBELLION. His death sentence for treason was commuted, and he was released in 1917. Elected as a SINN FÉIN member of parliament that year, he was head of the provisional government from 1919 to 1922 and led the party until 1926. He did

not go to LONDON for the ANGLO-IRISH TREATY

negotiations, deliberately insulating himself from what was bound to be a disputed settlement. When he withdrew from the government in 1922, he did not actively engage in the ensuing civil conflict. He resumed a leadership role in 1926 with the founding of the Fianna Fáil party. He became prime minister in 1932 and held the office until 1948, regaining it in 1951 and 1957. He was later elected to the ceremonial office of president of the IRISH REPUBLIC (1959–73). His singular achievement was the adoption of the constitution of 1937, which established the Republic of EIRE.

devolution

The transfer of limited powers from the central government to regional governments. This term has been used, especially in the 20th century, to describe plans and projects for sharing power within the UNITED KINGDOM. The first formal example was the creation of the separate gov-

ernment for NORTHERN IRELAND (1921–72). There were lengthy debates and discussions from the 1960s on legislative assemblies for WALES and SCOTLAND, stimulated by rising nationalist parties in both of those countries. In 1969 a royal COMMISSION on the constitution made divided recommendations for elected assemblies in Scotland and Wales; referendums were held in those countries in 1979, and the schemes were defeated. The idea was revived by the Labour government in 1997, and assemblies were this time endorsed by the electorate and inaugurated in 1999. Ironically, the devolved government of Northern Ireland had been terminated during the sectarian violence of the early 1970s. However, after peace talks and an agreement in 1998, an unsteady truce saw an effort toward the reestablishment of a provincial government with devolved powers in BELFAST.

Devonshire, Spencer Cavendish,

duke of See HARTINGTON, SPENCER CAVENDISH,

MARQUESS OF.

Devonshire, William Cavendish, fourth duke of (1720–1764)

prime minister, 1756–1757

Cavendish entered PARLIAMENT in 1741 and was

LORD LIEUTENANT of IRELAND in 1754. He became

first lord of the TREASURY in 1756, but he resigned the following year. He held the post of lord chamberlain of the household until 1762, when he was dismissed from the PRIVY COUNCIL

Diana, Princess of Wales (1961–1997) wife of Prince Charles

Lady Diana Spencer was married to CHARLES, PRINCE OF WALES in a fairy-tale (televised) wedding in WESTMINSTER ABBEY in 1981. Their first child, Prince William, was born in 1982, and a brother, Henry, in 1984. The couple separated in 1992 and were divorced in 1996. “Princess Di” was known for her patronage of numerous char-

ities, and her private life was vigorously followed by the press. She died in an automobile accident in Paris, and her funeral was an extraordinary public event, with public grief so massive that the royal family gave it full honors.

Dickens, Charles (1812–1870) author

The son of a navy clerk imprisoned for debt, Dickens grew up in poverty and worked in a factory as a child. He later worked as a reporter in the law courts and in PARLIAMENT. Early articles were printed in his first book, Sketches by ‘Boz’ (1836), while he had begun to publish the monthly installments of what later appeared in a single volume as Pickwick Papers (1836–37). He was a hugely successful novelist who had a prodigious output and a highly tuned social conscience. Oliver Twist (1837–39), Nicholas Nickleby (1838–39), and The Old Curiosity Shop

(1840–41) were in the first wave; the next surge included Dombey and Son (1848), David Copperfield (1849–50), Bleak House (1852–53), Hard Times (1854), Little Dorritt (1855–57), and Great Expectations (1860–61). In among these were sandwiched his historical novels of the GORDON RIOTS (Barnaby Rudge, 1841) and the French Revolution (Tale of Two Cities, 1859) plus his classic A Christmas Carol (1843), part of a series of Christmas books. Dickens was a prominent public figure, gave innumerable readings from his works, traveled to America, and was an active voice in many reform movements.

Dilke, Charles (1843–1911) radical politician

A lawyer and member of PARLIAMENT, Dilke was a radical, a republican, and a champion of empire. His book Greater Britain (1868) espoused a belief in “Anglo-Saxondom,” a worldwide race with its roots in ENGLAND. An advocate of radical domestic reforms, he held some CABINET posts, but after being cited in a prominent divorce case (1886), he was no longer considered cabinet material.

Dillon, John (1851–1927)

Irish nationalist

Forsaking his medical practice, Dillon entered politics and became a prominent nationalist. He was jailed three times for his support of the Irish Land League. He led the anti-PARNELL faction after that leader’s famous divorce case, and he was overall leader of the nationalists in the 1890s, replaced by John REDMOND in 1900. He remained a MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT until 1918, when he had the distinction of being defeated in that year’s election by Eamon DE VALERA while the latter was in prison.

disarmament

There have been three distinct methods of disarmament. Historically the most common was forced or involuntary denial of arms, typically imposed on a defeated enemy—e.g., Napoleonic France in 1815, Germany in 1919, or Japan in 1945. From the end of the 19th century, in reaction to the massive power of weapons of war, there has been a move toward voluntary surrender or limitation of arms. This has taken two forms: general disarmament and selective disarmament.

In international conferences in 1898 and 1907, the idea of general renunication of weapons of war was discussed, and the gruesome toll of WORLD WAR I propelled this idea into world councils. The concept of voluntary surrender of arms by nations of the world was included in the covenant of the LEAGUE OF NATIONS, which was embodied in the Treaties of Paris, signed in 1920–1925. The process was very slow, as steps to organize a general disarmament conference only were taken in 1926, and the actual meeting did not take place until 1932. Whatever momentum there may have been in 1920 was replaced by the rise of aggressive states and the decline of internationalism, aided by the Great DEPRESSION. This concept has not been revived since the 1930s.

Selective voluntary disarmament has had a number of successes. In the wake of the First

World War, naval disarmament was discussed

and launched in the WASHINGTON CONFERENCE in

1921–22. A 10-year holiday on ship construction was agreed to, and battleships were to be held to a set ratio between the major powers (GREAT BRITAIN, France, Italy, the United States, and Japan). Future meetings were supposed to impose limits on smaller classes of vessels, but those meetings fell victim to the same negative factors already noted. Meanwhile, talks in Geneva resulted in international agreements to ban the use of poison gas, and chemical and biological weapons generally (1925). This area was the subject of a convention on biological weapons in 1972. Meanwhile, a newer and more frightening menace had appeared with nuclear weaponry. From 1963 on, there have been treaties to limit testing (1963, 1974); production; deployment (outer space, 1967; undersea, 1971); and missile defense (1972). These treaties were mainly the work of the United States and the Soviet Union, whereas international involvement in nonproliferation treaties has been a more recent development, as the number of states possessing these weapons has continued to grow. Another recent effort, not generated by governments, was the Ottawa Convention to ban the use of antipersonnel land mines (1997).

disestablishment

The withdrawal of state legal and financial ties to the church. After the repeal of the TEST ACT and CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION (1828–29) came further reforms connected to tithes and church property. What was the legitimate extent of church authority? Was an established (i.e., statesupported) church still valid? In Catholic IRE- LAND, the case was weakest, and in 1869 William GLADSTONE put through a measure to disestablish the ANGLICAN church there. In WALES, with large numbers of dissenters, the cause was adopted by the LIBERAL PARTY in the 1890s, and disestablishment became law in 1914. No such action has

occurred in ENGLAND or SCOTLAND.

dispensing power

Monarchs claimed an extraordinary power to dispense with laws as part of their royal PRE- ROGATIVE. Somewhat like the royal pardon, this power allowed the king to relieve a subject from the force of a law. The STUART kings used the power freely, often to aid their Roman Catholic subjects. The right was upheld in the case of Godden v. Hales (1686), but it was declared illegal by

the BILL OF RIGHTS.

See also DECLARATION OF RIGHTS; GLORIOUS REVOLUTION; SUSPENDING POWER.

Disraeli, Benjamin (1804–1881) prime minister, 1868, 1874–1880

Disraeli was the son of an Anglo-Jewish writer; he was himself baptized in the

ENGLAND in 1817. His background impeded his entry into politics, but he enjoyed a successful career as a novelist, often using political subject matter (Vivian Grey, 1826; Coningsby, 1844; Sybil,

1845; Tancred, 1847). His first election to PARLIA- MENT came in 1837, his first time in government office only in 1852. He had broken with Sir Robert PEEL and became a key supporter of the CORN LAWS in the later 1840s. He served as CHAN-

CELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER for Lord DERBY in his

minority governments, and then became deputy leader in the 1860s, achieving his first great success in the second REFORM ACT (1867).

Disraeli was PRIME MINISTER for most of 1868, after Derby had retired. The CONSERVATIVE PARTY, which had struggled to regroup since the 1840s, was provided with a central organization in 1870. Disraeli also provided the party with a strong statement of purpose, what some called “Tory Democracy,” but what to him was probably just good sound traditional conservatism. He supported the monarch, and indeed he cultivated a close bond with Queen VICTORIA. He was a strong imperialist, but then so were most of his colleagues. His manner of fostering empire was more colorful, as in his scheme of purchasing a large bloc of shares of the SUEZ CANAL (1875) or his creation of the title of empress of India for the

Benjamin Disraeli (Library of Congress)

queen (1876). These measures were highlights from his one long term in office, when he also asserted GREAT BRITAIN’s role as a European power at the Congress of BERLIN in 1878. He retired having succeeded in reviving the Conservative Party and making it a viable alternative to

the LIBERAL PARTY of William GLADSTONE.

disruption

A schism in the CHURCH OF SCOTLAND in 1843 came from debates over (1) whether a minister (selected by a patron) could be forced on an unwilling congregation, and (2) whether secular courts (e.g., the Court of SESSION) could interfere in church affairs. Both issues touched deep and long-standing arguments in the kirk, brought to a pitch by the charismatic leadership of Thomas CHALMERS. About 470 ministers (out of 1,200) joined with 40 percent of the members to form

the FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND in 1843.

Dissenters

Refers to those Protestants who did not accept the doctrine or observe the rites of the CHURCH OF ENGLAND, as it was reestablished at the RESTORA- TION (1660–62). The term includes those of the

BAPTIST, INDEPENDENT, PRESBYTERIAN, and QUAKER

faiths. They were the targets of persecution until 1689, when a TOLERATION ACT exempted them from penalties, without prescribing religious freedom. The rise of METHODISM after the 1730s added a new and powerful body that only separated from the established church after John WESLEY died in 1790. The final repeal of the TEST ACT and Corporation Act in 1828 gave Dissenters equality before the LAW. Thereafter, the main issues of the next century turned on the reduction or elimination of privileges, the requirement to pay tithes, denial of university admission, and the basic legal position of the established church.

See also NONCONFORMISTS; PURITANS.

dissenting academies

Private schools for NONCONFORMISTs, which became numerous from the later 17th century, particularly in urban areas. They were operated on a fee-paying basis, and their curriculum usually contained a wider range of academic subjects than the classical GRAMMAR SCHOOL, including modern foreign languages, mathematics, and natural sciences. The advanced classes in some academies were comparable to advanced secondary and university levels. Both teachers and students were drawn from groups whose beliefs prevented them from taking the oaths required

at OXFORD UNIVERSITY and CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY.

dissolution

The term has a specific and a general use. In the specific case, the dissolution of English and Irish monasteries took place in the 16th century. The earliest examples came before the REFORMATION. Authorities like Cardinal WOLSEY found it convenient to “dissolve” properties and convert their wealth to new purposes (schools, colleges, etc.).

One of the archbishop’s former servants, Thomas CROMWELL, became a key official under HENRY VIII and conducted a survey of monastic properties (VALOR ECCLESIASTICUS, 1535). Later this was used as those houses were dissolved, i.e., pensions given to the clergy, and the property surrendered to the royal treasury (1536–40). Many foundations (churches, schools, almshouses, etc.) were reestablished on new terms with secular patrons. There was violent resistance to these measures, the most serious being the PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE in 1536. However, the process continued, and it was extended to IRELAND.

The other use of the term dissolution is in the realm of politics. A PARLIAMENT is dissolved by the monarch before a new election, on the advice of the PRIME MINISTER. When a parliament ceases to meet temporarily, it is prorogued (see PROROGATION). These royal powers were a focal point of the struggles of the 17th century, but from the 18th century they ceased to be contentious, as it became financially necessary to have Parliament meet on a regular basis. Thus the direct role of the sovereign declined.

divine right

From very early times the power of kings was seen as godlike; both Roman emperors and medieval rulers played upon this theme. The ROYAL SUPREMACY of the TUDORs brought an augmented form of power, and the STUARTs, beginning with JAMES VI AND I, made a point of stressing the divinity of kings. This emphasis was in response to secular political ideas of the RENAISSANCE and in reaction to the chaos of religious warfare (1560– 1648). The king’s divinity was a natural focus of the martyrdom of CHARLES I (1649), and it became an argument for unfettered royal succession under his sons. After the assertion of PARLIAMENT’s power in the Act of SETTLEMENT (1701), no pretence of unfettered divine right could survive.

dominion

The term dominion originally had the loose meaning of a territory under the rule of the

Crown. By the 19th century, it was applied to former colonies which achieved limited autonomy (CANADA, AUSTRALIA). After the experience of WORLD WAR I, and the evident growth of their power, dominions were defined by the IMPERIAL CONFERENCE of 1926 as “autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, although united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations.”

Donne, John (1572–1631) poet

Donne came from a Catholic RECUSANT background, but in the course of his studies he moved toward the CHURCH OF ENGLAND. Dismissed by his patron when he married without consent of the bride’s parents, he eventually found favor with JAMES VI AND I. After taking holy orders in 1615, he became a very successful preacher and was made dean of ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL (1621). Much of his poetry was written in his earlier career, and sermons and essays after his ordination.

Douglas, John See QUEENSBERRY, JOHN

SHOLTO DOUGLAS, MARQUIS OF.

Douglas-Home, Sir Alec (1903–1995)

(14th earl of Home, baron Home of the Hirsel of Coldstream)

prime minister, 1963–1964

A Conservative MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from

1931, Douglas-Home had been Neville CHAM- BERLAIN’s private secretary (1937–40). He served in junior ministerial positions and, as earl of Home, was the leader of the HOUSE OF LORDS (1950–60) before becoming foreign secretary under Harold MACMILLAN (1960–63). He renounced his title when he was chosen to succeed Macmillan as PRIME MINISTER. The choice raised eyebrows because he was picked instead of the presumed heir, R. A. Butler. The manner of his