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order to draw attention to their plight; to ask for relief; and, in some cases, to exploit the poverty of the workers to advance political prospects for communist and other political groups. Jarrow, in Northern ENGLAND, was one of a number of pockets of very severe unemployment. The Labour MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT, Ellen Wilkinson, led 200 workers on a nonpolitical march to LON- DON. They attracted sympathetic publicity, but their petition to PARLIAMENT did not gain any notable response.

Jeffrey, Francis, Lord (1773–1850) lawyer, critic

Lord Jeffrey was called to the Scottish bar in 1794, but his WHIG political affiliation prevented him from attracting clients. He turned to literature and edited the new Edinburgh Review (1802–29). Under his direction, the Review was probably the most influential progressive publication in GREAT BRITAIN. He resigned as editor in order to take the post of LORD ADVOCATE when the Whigs came to power in 1830. He went on to become a lord of session in 1834, but his reputation was made in literature rather than the law.

Jeffreys of Wem, George Jeffreys, first baron (1648–1689)

judge

A lawyer sympathetic to the cause of JAMES VII AND II, Jeffreys was recorder of LONDON in 1677, and he was an aggressive prosecutor in trials connected to the POPISH PLOT. In 1683 he became chief justice of the Court of KING’S BENCH, and he presided at the trials of Titus OATES, Algernon

SIDNEY, and Richard BAXTER. When MONMOUTH’S

REBELLION broke out in 1685, Jeffreys led the judges who presided at the famous BLOODY ASSIZES. The 1,300 prisoners were tried in a summary fashion, and most were transported, but 250 were executed with the full grisly fate of being drawn and quartered. The punishments were carefully spread out over the west country, and they had a very strong impact, especially on

Jeffrey’s reputation. Later LORD CHANCELLOR for James, he was captured after the GLORIOUS REV-

OLUTION and died in the TOWER OF LONDON.

Jellicoe, John Rushworth Jellicoe, first earl (1859–1935)

admiral

Jellicoe assumed command of the Grand Fleet at the beginning of WORLD WAR I. At the Battle of JUTLAND he was severely criticized for not destroying the German fleet, though he ensured it never again sought a major conflict. He was transferred to the ADMIRALTY and the post of first sea lord, where he introduced the concept of convoy tactics against the submarine.

Jenkins’ Ear, War of (1739–1748)

British merchants had complained of Spanish mistreatment throughout the WEST INDIES. Captain Robert Jenkins had an ear cut off in a skirmish with the guarda-costas in 1731. Mounting complaints in Parliament, made more vivid by the sight of the now-famous ear, caused WAL- POLE’s government to declare war on Spain. The British were actually attempting to break down the Spanish imperial monopoly, and enough of these encounters would guarantee an armed conflict. British squadrons had a mixed record, most notably capturing Porto Bello in 1739. This war merged with the war of AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION in 1740.

Jenkinson, Robert See LIVERPOOL, ROBERT

JENKINSON, EARL OF.

Jenner, Edward (1749–1823) physician

Jenner worked at St. George’s Hospital, LONDON, before deciding to practice in his native Gloucestershire. There he worked with local medical groups, and he studied the best method for protection against smallpox. He believed that the

injection of cowpox matter was more effective than the current practice of inoculation with smallpox material. He wrote and published An Inquiry into Cow-Pox (1798). He slowly gained support for his idea and then was honored as a pioneer. His aim of eradicating the disease was only accomplished in 1978.

Jervis, John, earl St. Vincent

(1735–1823) admiral

Served with General James WOLFE at Quebec (1759); led expeditions to relieve GIBRALTAR (1780–82); and took command in the WEST IN- DIES, where he captured Martinique and Guadeloupe (1794). His fame rests on victories in the Mediterranean. In 1797 he led the fleet in defeating Spain off Cape St. Vincent. He was first lord of the ADMIRALTY in 1801–04. In this role his inquiries into misuse of funds in the dockyards helped to bring on the impeachment of Henry DUNDAS, Lord Melville.

Jesuits

The Society of Jesus, founded by St. Ignatius Loyola in 1534, was dedicated to combating the heresy of the Protestant REFORMATION. Though not allowed into ENGLAND by MARY I, the order infiltrated successfully by the time ELIZABETH I was excommunicated (1570). Some, like Edmund CAMPION, were apprehended and tortured. Others were involved in plots tied to MARY, QUEEN OF

SCOTS, as well as the GUNPOWDER PLOT. By the

18th century, secular governments were wary of their reputation, and Pope Clement XIV dissolved the order in 1773. Restored by Pius VI in 1814, they returned to England in 1829 and have since assumed a pastoral and educational role.

Jinnah, Mohammed Ali (1876–1948)

Muslim nationalist

Trained as a BARRISTER, Jinnah is known as the “father of PAKISTAN.” He joined the Muslim

League in 1913 and was a leading critic of colonialism. He organized campaigns of resistance to parallel the Indian National Congress (Khilafat movement), but parted from them when he perceived Hindu nationalists were unlikely to allow minority rights. Demands for a separate Pakistan were made at the League’s Lahore Conference in 1940, and in the negotiations in 1947 he insisted on partition. He became the first governorgeneral of independent Pakistan in 1947.

Johnson, Samuel (1709–1784) lexicographer, author

After an abbreviated period of schooling and a short career as a teacher, Johnson went to LON-

DON and wrote for The Gentleman’s Magazine.

From 1747 to 1755 he worked on his Dictionary of the English Language, which became a landmark of prose and erudition for the 18th century. Author of numerous essays, of the novel Rasselas

Engraving of Samuel Johnson (Library of Congress)

(1759), and of The Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets (1779–81), Johnson was also a founder of the famous Literary Club. His life and many of his opinions are known today through the writing of James BOSWELL, his frequent companion, and that author’s Life of Johnson (1791).

Johnston, Archibald, baron Warriston

(1611–1663) statesman

One of the authors of the SCOTTISH NATIONAL COVENANT, Johnston led the Scottish PRESBYTERI-

ANs attending the WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY (1643),

where the participants tried to work out a settlement of religion as promised in the SOLEMN

LEAGUE AND COVENANT (1643) between ENGLAND

and SCOTLAND. He was deprived of his offices when Oliver CROMWELL defeated the Scots in 1650, but that English leader appointed him lord clerk register in 1657 and gave him a PEERAGE. He fled at the RESTORATION, was apprehended, convicted of TREASON in EDINBURGH, and hanged.

Jones, Inigo (1573–1652) architect, designer

After travel abroad, Jones applied what he had learned of classical design, first to the decoration of masques (see Ben JONSON) and later to buildings. He held the post of Surveyor of the King’s Works (1615–44), and while he designed at least 45 architectural projects, only a small number survive, including the Whitehall Banqueting House; the Queen’s House at Greenwich; and St. Paul’s Church, Covent Garden.

Jones, William (1746–1794) orientalist, judge

A lawyer and a linguist, Jones was appointed judge of the High Court of Calcutta in 1783. He was a leading scholar of oriental law and languages, and with his understanding of Sanskrit he translated Indian classics and published digests of Indian law.

Jonson, Ben (1572–1637) poet, playwright

Jonson composed masques for the Court, staged with Inigo JONES. His more durable works include Volpone (1605), The Alchemist (1610), and Bartholomew Fair (1614). Once imprisoned for a scurrilous play, The Isle of Dogs, he acted in some of SHAKESPEARE’s plays and was jailed for killing a fellow actor.

Jowett, Benjamin (1817–1893) scholar

Professor of Greek (1855) and master of Balliol College, OXFORD UNIVERSITY (1870), Jowett is credited with being a major influence in the lives of many leaders of the late 19th century. In his scholarly work he translated Plato (1871), Thucydides (1881), and Aristotle’s Politics (1885).

Joyce, James (1882–1941) novelist

Born in DUBLIN, which he used as a background, Joyce was a pioneer of modern literary style. His early Dubliners (1914) and his Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) were composed before his extended exile on the continent. He later wrote his experimental works Ulysses (1922) and Finnegan’s Wake (1939), which challenged the critics and the censors.

jubilee

The length of Queen VICTORIA’s reign, the growth of her empire, and the sense of British power (augmented by its challenges from abroad) made the 50th anniversary of her accession an important date. In 1887 the Golden JUBILEE was celebrated with a review of the fleet, erection of statues, and a service in WESTMINSTER ABBEY. Ten years later the Diamond Jubilee brought together an even larger fleet, a massive parade of troops from around the empire, and many other demonstrations of loyalty. But due to her age, the queen attended few events, the

main one being a short service outside ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, which she attended in an open carriage. In 2002 her great-great granddaughter, ELIZABETH II, also celebrated a Golden Jubilee.

Judicature Act (1873)

By 1873 the medieval English court system had long been recognized as archaic. Their rules, their jurisdictions, and their procedures had all been subject to piecemeal reform in the 19th century, but a more general overhaul was needed. In the Judicature Act, a single HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE was created, combining the

ancient courts of KING’S BENCH, COMMON PLEAS, EXCHEQUER, and CHANCERY, along with the ADMI-

RALTY and the newer Probate and Divorce courts. The new high court retained divisions with the old names, mainly to ease the transition. The judges of the new court were meant to act in any of the areas, and all of them came under the review of the Court of APPEAL and, later, the judicial committee of the HOUSE OF LORDS.

See also COURTS OF LAW.

Junius

The pen name of an anonymous author who wrote 69 letters to the Public Advertiser between 1769 and 1772. The letters were attacks on ministers and on the king. In a set of sensational trials on one letter criticizing GEORGE III, the juries refused to convict for libel. There has never been a definitive identification of the author.

jury

In addition to the GRAND JURY, which presented criminal charges, the trial or petty jury was an early medieval institution. In English law 12 persons were chosen from a panel and sworn to give a verdict based on evidence presented to them. The practice of using juries in civil cases dates from 1179 and in criminal cases from about 1222, after the Lateran Council of 1215 had abolished the use of the ordeal. At first it

was assumed that jurors would have knowledge of the matter of the case, but over time their proximity to the issue dwindled, and their role became that of assessors of evidence. Verdicts were supposed to be unanimous, but that rule was changed to majority vote in 1967, which had long been the practice in SCOTLAND. By this time the number of cases using the trial jury was greatly outnumbered by summary proceedings.

Justice, High Court of See HIGH COURT OF

JUSTICE.

Justice of the Peace (JP)

The JP was the principal local official of the English Crown for many centuries. The office, which originated in the 13th and 14th centuries, was filled by an unpaid royal servant who was charged with keeping the peace. He was named in a COMMISSION of the peace for the COUNTY, and he would meet four times a year in QUARTER SES- SIONS with his fellow justices to try criminal offenders. The duties of the JPs began to expand, especially from the 16th century, as work connected to the POOR LAW and other aspects of government was assigned to them. In the 19th century the administrative functions were taken from them, and local government was entrusted to county and borough councils. In the 20th century the Quarter Sessions were abolished (1971), but JPs are still named in commissions, and each commission area is divided into PETTY SESSION areas. The modern JP, or MAGISTRATE, sits in courts of two or more, and the magistrates’ court exercises civil and criminal jurisdiction. The vast majority of modern legal business is done in these courts, as was the case with their predecessors. The JP was introduced at various times in SCOT- LAND, but there the office had to compete with other local authorities. In IRELAND the JP had a role similar to that of ENGLAND, but in the 19th century much of the work of local judicial administration fell to stipendiary magistrates, sometimes known as resident magistrates, or RMs.

Justiciary, High Court of See HIGH COURT

OF JUSTICIARY.

Jutland, Battle of (1916)

The meeting of the two fleets of GREAT BRITAIN and Germany was the climax of the feverish preparations dating back to the naval arms race of the 1890s. The smaller German fleet had been held in the Baltic, but the British tempted them

into the North Sea in May 1916. The British fleet under Admiral John JELLICOE found that its gunnery and signals were deficient, and in the engagements between the two, more British ships and men were lost. However, the German ships retired to port and never emerged in force for the rest of WORLD WAR I. Thus the tactical victory went to Germany, the strategic victory to Britain.

Kames, Henry Home, Lord

(1696–1782) judge, author

Tutored at home and having no formal education, Lord Kames went to work in a law office and studied independently before being called to the bar in 1723. He was a member of a group of EDINBURGH intellectuals which eventually became the Edinburgh Philosophical Society, of which he was president from 1769. But his primary vocation was the LAW. He became a lord of session in 1752, taking the title Lord Kames. He made important contributions in the publication of court decisions, first with a short volume, Remarkable Decisions (1728) and then two folio volumes, Decisions of the Court of Session . . . in the Form of a Dictionary (1741). His original compositions included an important collection of Historical Law Tracts (1759), which showed great interest in the comparative aspects of English and Scots law. Kames’s talents ranged widely, as he also wrote Essays Concerning British Antiquities (1747), Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion (1751), Principles of Equity (1760), the widely read Elements of Criticism (1762), and

Sketches of the History of Man (1774).

See also COURTS OF LAW; SESSION, COURT OF.

Kay, John (1704–ca. 1780) inventor

Manager of a woolen workshop, Kay invented devices for the manufacture of cloth, the most notable being the “flying shuttle.” This enabled one person to work wider fabrics, which previously had required two workers. The device

became very popular, though not with workers who were unemployed. Kay’s efforts to protect his patent were costly and unsuccessful, and he went to France, evidently to continue his work there, but there is no record of his death.

Kay-Shuttleworth, James (1804–1877) physician, education reformer

Trained in medicine at the University of EDIN- BURGH, Kay-Shuttleworth worked in Manchester and became involved in the reform of public health and EDUCATION. In Manchester he was secretary to the Board of Health, and he later served as an assistant POOR LAW commisisoner. In 1839 he became secretary to the Committee of the Privy Council on Education, and he made significant contributions by founding a training college for pupil-teachers and helping to institute a system of school inspectors.

Keats, John (1795–1821) poet

Apprenticed to an apothecary-surgeon, Keats gave up that career for poetry. In 1817 his first volume of poems was published, followed in the next few years by a remarkable output: Endymion (1818), “The Eve of St. Agnes,” “Ode to a Nightingale,” “Ode on a Grecian Urn,” which with others were published in 1820, as was his Hyperion. He went to Italy at the end of the year, hoping to recover from tuberculosis, but he died in Rome early the following year. He was one of the main figures in English

ROMANTICISM.

Kenya

Called British East Africa in the late 19th century and managed by a company of that name, Kenya was made a PROTECTORATE in 1893 but became a COLONY only in 1920, when its name was changed to Kenya. In the 1950s the Mau Mau rebellion, a series of terrorist attacks on settlers, forced the pace of liberation. Kenya became independent in 1963, and in 1964 it was made a republic, remaining in the Commonwealth.

Keppel, Augustus Keppel, viscount

(1725–1786) admiral

Keppel sailed with George ANSON’s voyage around the world (1740) and was involved in

the SEVEN YEARS’ WAR. He entered PARLIAMENT in

1761 as a supporter of the Rockingham WHIGS. In the American Revolution he commanded the fleet, but he was court-martialed for his conduct against the French at Ushant (1779). The charges, brought by a subordinate, alleged failure to take action and cowardly retreat. Keppel was acquitted and was made first lord of the ADMI- RALTY in 1782.

Keynes, John Maynard (1883–1946) economist

A scholar and government servant, Keynes’s pronounced influence on economic policy spanned nearly half a century. He was at the TREASURY during WORLD WAR I and went to the Paris Peace Conference, where he disputed plans for REPARATIONS and resigned from the delegation. He went to write The Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919), which deplored the policy of making Germany pay for war damages. Returning to his research, Keynes wrote important books on economic theory, including his Treatise on Money (1930) and The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1938). The thrust of his work was to encourage government intervention in the economy in order to stimulate growth and full employment. He

was chief British delegate to the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference, which established the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. His ideas influenced the policies of many industrial countries down to the 1970s.

Khartoum

The capital of The SUDAN. In the 19th century Khartoum was the settlement which General Charles GORDON was supposed to evacuate in the face of the forces of the Mahdi and his zealous followers. After Gordon’s death, the city was destroyed. When it was retaken by General KITCHENER in 1898, it was made the base for the government of The Sudan until 1956.

Kidd, William (1645–1701) pirate

A PRIVATEER with a commission to seize pirates (1695), “Captain Kidd” turned to piracy himself. He was arrested in 1699 and claimed that he was innocent. Sent to ENGLAND for trial in 1701, he was found guilty of murder and piracy and was executed.

Kildare, earls of See FITZGERALD, EARL OF KILDARE.

Kilkenny, Confederation of

Irish government established in 1642 by the Old English and their GAELIC fellow Catholics. The Confederation wrote a provisional constitution, raised armies, and sent ambassadors to other states and to Rome. The government negotiated with CHARLES I, eventually proposing to send him an army in exchange for a Catholic government of IRELAND. When these terms were discovered, the king suffered a major propaganda defeat; moreover, the promised army never reached him. The Confederation was the de facto government of Ireland until its forces were destroyed by Oliver CROMWELL in 1649.