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LAW REPORTS. ENGLAND had the premier system, and it was mandated for WALES in 16th-century statutes. The Scots drew upon their own recorded cases, but also upon major treatises called “institutes.” The Irish courts emulated the English, borrowing heavily from their precedents.

Even as the royal courts developed in different countries, Roman law (or CIVIL LAW) was applied in areas such as the ADMIRALTY (mercantile and maritime disputes). The laws of the church were preserved in canons, which also drew upon civilian tradition. Prior to the 16th century the canons were those of the universal church, and later the national churches of England and Scotland and (for the Catholic Irish) the church of Rome. The canons governed the affairs of the clergy and the enforcement of moral law, including marital and testamentary cases.

The CRIMINAL LAW was one of the most ancient legal functions, and one in which there had long been public involvement in apprehension, accusation, and trial. Until the 19th century, trials were typically done in a day, before the king’s judges on circuit, or in their central courts. The criminal law was the accumulation of custom and practice before the judges; only very lately was it written down and collated in the form of digests. The practice of recording and arranging the decisions of courts (criminal or otherwise) was a private venture, done by judges, BARRIS- TERs (or advocates), or their clerks.

From the origin of parliaments until the 19th century, statute law was a small part of the legal process. Yet as early as the 16th century, the statements of law made by “the king in parliament” were accorded the highest authority. By the 18th century, legislation had become much more prominent, and by the 20th century it became the main source of law. This trend reflected an expanding electorate and a sense that the judges should not (or could not) make law in the modern world. The legislators assumed the power to collect, inscribe, and formulate laws for the modern age.

See also ACT OF PARLIAMENT; COURTS OF LAW.

Law, Andrew Bonar (1858–1923) prime minister, 1922–1923

A Conservative MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from

1900 to 1923, Law was born in CANADA and raised in SCOTLAND. He succeeded Arthur BAL- FOUR as a compromise choice for CONSERVATIVE PARTY leader in 1911. Leading the opposition to the IRISH HOME RULE bill, he supported extreme measures of resistance. In WORLD WAR I, he entered a coalition government under Herbert ASQUITH in 1915 and rose to a more important position when that CABINET was replaced by one under David LLOYD GEORGE in 1916. He continued to support Lloyd George in the 1918 election, but in 1922 he assumed party leadership and won a brief term in office before he was forced to retire because of ill health.

Law, John (1671–1729) financier

A Scot, Law was an early proponent of deficit spending. He was allowed to establish a bank in France that issued paper currency, and at first the effect was to help to revive business (1716). But Law also gained a monopoly on foreign trade and sold shares in his Mississippi Company, which experienced a speculative boom and then collapsed in 1720.

Law, William (1686–1761) religious writer

Born in Northamptonshire, the son of a grocer, Law graduated from Emmanuel College, CAM- BRIDGE UNIVERSITY, where he was made a fellow. However, he was deprived of the fellowship after refusing to take the oath to George I. He defended NONJURORS, and he wrote Three Letters to the Bishop of Bangor (1717–19), disputing the ideas of Benjamin HOADLY. He was the author of the most popular devotional work of the 18th century, A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life

(1728). Law also wrote The Case of Reason (1732), which disputed the rational and deistic ideas of the day.

Lawrence, D(avid) H(erbert)

(1885–1930) novelist

A miner’s son, D. H. Lawrence went to university and became a teacher. His novels were explicit and sometimes autobiographical; he was prosecuted for obscenity for The Rainbow (1915). He and his wife Frieda spent much of their lives abroad, as he wrote Women in Love (1920) and

Lady Chatterley’s Lover (1928), both privately published. The latter work could not be published in its original form in Britain until 1960, because of the obscenity laws.

Lawrence, T(homas) E(dward)

(1888–1935) soldier, arabist

Known as “Lawrence of Arabia,” T. E. Lawrence had studied in the Middle East and was drawn into intelligence work at the beginning of WORLD WAR I. He assisted in the rebellion of the Arabs against Turkish rule in 1917. At the peace conference in 1919 he tried unsuccessfully to gain support for Arab independence. In 1921 Winston CHURCHILL took him into the Colonial Office to organize a new Middle East department. Lawrence’s celebrated account of his experience in the Arab revolt was Seven Pillars of Wisdom (1926).

law reports

The nature of the COMMON LAW demanded a written record of proceedings, arguments, and decisions, as the basis for study, debate, and future adjudication. As odd as it might seem today, much of the practice of recording and arranging the decisions of COURTS OF LAW was a private venture done by judges, BARRISTERs (or advocates), or their clerks. The clerks made formal entries in the official court rolls for each case. These were augmented by the notes on arguments in the medieval YEAR BOOKS, which were cumulated and printed in the 16th century. By then new forms of reports were being published

under the names of the reporters, each working for a certain period in a particular court. There was little standardization until the 19th century. Regular reporting in the Scottish courts began in the 18th century and in Irish courts in the 19th century.

League of Nations

The idea of an international organization of states had become current from the end of the 19th century, and it was embodied in the treaties signed at the end of WORLD WAR I. Formed in 1920, the League of Nations had 53 member states, and it met in Geneva, where there was an assembly of all members and a council with permanent and rotating members. The constitution of the League, the covenant, was part of each of the postwar treaties. It called for international DISARMAMENT, the peaceful resolution of all disputes, and a long list of rules for international behavior. The League was hampered by lack of participation. The United States never ratified the Versailles Treaty and so never became a member state. GREAT BRITAIN and France were the only major powers who belonged to the League throughout its existence, 1920–46. There was no enforcement machinery available to the League, only the threat of economic sanctions. Thus when aggression threatened world peace in the 1930s, there was little to fear from the League.

Leicester See COKE, THOMAS, EARL OF

LEICESTER.

Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of

(1532–1588) courtier

A favorite of Queen ELIZABETH I, Leicester was an ardent Protestant and a member of the queen’s council. He was involved in the plot his father (John Dudley, duke of NORTHUMBERLAND) engineered for Lady Jane GREY and had been under

a death sentence. There were rumors of his involvement in the death of his first wife. He led a disastrous expedition to the Netherlands and was recalled in 1587. He died as the preparations for the Spanish ARMADA were being made.

lend-lease

As GREAT BRITAIN fought alone against Germany in 1940–41, her supplies and her sources of cash and credit were badly depleted. The American government was still neutral, but the U.S. Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act in March 1941. The act offered material and supplies to countries which were the victims of aggression, to be paid for at the end of WORLD WAR II. In all Britain received about $30 billion in aid, or about 60 percent of the total, with the rest going to the Soviet Union and other countries.

Lennox, Esmé Stuart, duke of

(1542–1583) politician

A Frenchman, invited to SCOTLAND by JAMES VI, his cousin, in 1579, Lennox made a powerful impression on the young king. He helped in the removal of the regent, the earl of MORTON (executed for the murder of Lord DARNLEY). When James was kidnapped by radical Protestants (the RUTHVEN RAID) in 1582, he was obliged to order Lennox to leave the kingdom.

Leslie, Alexander (1580–1661) soldier

As with many professional British soldiers, Leslie served on the Continent, in his case, for 30 years with the Swedish army. In 1639 he took command of Scottish forces in the BISHOPS’ WARS. At the Battle of MARSTON MOOR he led the Scottish army against the king, and he received CHARLES I’s surrender in 1646. Within a few years he had changed sides, and he led the Scottish army against Oliver CROMWELL at Worcester (1650). After his defeat there, he was imprisoned by the English (1651–54).

Lesotho

The former COLONY of BASUTOLAND became independent in 1966. A constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, Lesotho is surrounded by SOUTH AFRICA. In its farming economy, many people have to find work in South Africa, while in the 1970s and 1980s, the country was a haven for political refugees. These factors have created instability, and there have been several forcible changes in the succession.

Levant Company

A merchant company trading in the Mediterranean, the Levant Company was preceded by the Turkey Company (chartered in 1581) and the Venice Company (1583). The two merged in 1592, and the Levant Company was chartered in 1605 for trade with ports of the Ottoman Empire. The main exports were cloth and metals, and the imports included spices, currants, wine, and silk. The company’s monopoly was surrendered in 1825.

Levellers

A radical faction that emerged late in the CIVIL WAR, with a few extremist members of PARLIA- MENT and a large number of soldiers in the NEW MODEL ARMY. The Levellers’ outspoken leader was John LILBURNE, who with others produced a tract called The Agreement of the People (1647). This called for manhood suffrage, removal of social distinctions, religious toleration, and biennial parliaments. The terms were debated at Putney and rejected by the army officers, but the soldiers continued to press their case, and in some cases there were mutinies. Whether or not these were the doing of the Levellers, they provided the government with an excuse to suppress the group.

Liberal Party

The party formed in the 1860s by former WHIGS, TORY followers of Robert PEEL, and an assortment of radicals. The general goals of the party were

individual liberty, social reform, and FREE TRADE. The electoral reform of 1867 and the

of 1872 seemed to galvanize the elements of the emerging party. William GLADSTONE was the standard bearer, and his government from 1868 to 1874 was one of the foremost reforming administrations of the century. Naturally, as the movements to reform intensified by the 1880s, there were fewer Whig aristocrats who were comfortable in this organization. The IRISH HOME RULE bill of 1886 became a defining moment, one when a large number of aristocratic and conservative members seceded and formed the LIBERAL UNIONISTS. Over the next two decades, the Liberals were mostly in opposition and were increasingly identified with the middle and lower classes and with progressive reform. This was clear in the Newcastle Programme of 1891, which called for DISESTABLISHMENT, land law reform, and workmens’ compensation.

In 1906 the Liberals won their last and greatest electoral victory. The party by then had two clearly divergent groups: the progressive faction with David LLOYD GEORGE and others who wanted extensive social reform; and the Liberal Imperialists, like Herbert ASQUITH, who were more pragmatic and moderate. During WORLD WAR I, Prime Minister Asquith was forced to form a coalition (1915), and continued internal divisions resulted in his replacement by Lloyd George as PRIME MINISTER in 1916. This act of treachery was the cause of a split in the party that never healed. After the war, the coalition stayed in power until 1922. Then in a series of elections, Liberal power melted away, while the LABOUR PARTY emerged as the second major party. By 1924 the Liberals only had 42 seats, and their strength never recovered. Since then they have formed a small third party, and in the 1970s they began a series of reformations, the successor party becoming the Social and Liberal Democrat Party in 1988.

Liberal Unionists

1886. An astonishing 93 Liberal MPs defected over this issue. A faction led by Joseph CHAM- BERLAIN and one headed by the marquis of HART- INGTON formed a National Liberal Union in 1889, and in 1895 they won 70 seats. In 1912 the unionists joined the CONSERVATIVE PARTY, and that party changed its name to the Conservative and Unionist Party.

Lilburne, John (1615–1657)

Leveller leader

Born into a gentry family in Sunderland, Lilburne came to LONDON in 1630 and was apprenticed to a clothier. Punished by the Court of STAR CHAMBER for distributing PURITAN tracts (1638), he was an officer in Oliver CROMWELL’s cavalry and fought until 1645. He then resigned, refus-

ing to swear to the SOLEMN LEAGUE AND COVE-

NANT. An outspoken critic of the ARMY and PARLIAMENT, he was one of the leading figures among the LEVELLERS, and he was jailed many times. After attacking the COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND in England’s New Chains Discovered

(1649), he was tried for treason and acquitted but banished in 1651. He returned in 1653, spent more time in prison, and latterly joined

the QUAKERS.

Limerick, Treaty of (1691)

The treaty ending the siege of Limerick and the

war between JAMES VII AND II and WILLIAM III in

1691. Under the terms of the military agreement, the soldiers defending Limerick were allowed to go to France. The civilian articles called for toleration of Catholics and security for their land. The Protestant Irish PARLIAMENT did not ratify the treaty until 1697, and by then it was in a substantially different form. Moreover, they soon began to enact the intolerant system

of PENAL LAWS.

limited liability

After a series of acts (1855–62), the investor was only liable to the extent of the shares he owned. This added security contributed to increased investment and industrial growth.

Lister, Joseph Lister, first baron

(1827–1912) surgeon

Lister was born in Upton, Essex; his father was a QUAKER. He studied at University College, London, and with James Syme of the University of EDINBURGH. Lister became a leader in antiseptic surgery, adopting ideas of Louis Pasteur. He was professor of surgery at Glasgow University (1860–69), the University of Edinburgh (1869–77), and King’s College, London (1877– 92). He used carbolic acid for disinfectant and later adopted the method of Robert Koch of Germany to sterilize with steam.

Liverpool, Robert Jenkinson, earl of

(1770–1828)

prime minister, 1812–1827

Liverpool grew up in Oxfordshire; his father was a BARONET. He attended Charterhouse and Christ Church, OXFORD UNIVERSITY. A grand tour afterward was eventful, and he was present at the fall of the Bastille in Paris in 1789. A member of the HOUSE OF COMMONS from 1790, he went to the HOUSE OF LORDS in 1803. His apprenticeship was varied, as he was foreign secretary in 1801–03, home secretary in 1804 and again in 1807, and secretary for war from 1809 to 1812. When he took over as PRIME MINISTER in 1812, the concluding phase of the NAPOLEONIC WARS had begun, and he presided over the final victory. His government took a firm line against domestic

protest, as in the SPA FIELDS RIOT and PETERLOO

MASSACRE. Liverpool was an effective leader, and though opposed to major reform (CATHOLIC

EMANCIPATION, FRANCHISE reform), he brought in

more liberal members of his party in the 1820s and showed flexibility on TARIFFs and CRIMINAL LAW. After suffering a stroke, he resigned in 1827.

Livingstone, David (1813–1873) explorer, missionary

Born in Blantyre, SCOTLAND, Livingstone trained as a medical missionary in Glasgow. After his medical education and ordination, he went to AFRICA to work for the London Missionary Society. Beginning in Southern Africa, he moved into the central part of the continent. His expeditions there brought significant results with the discoveries of Lake Ngami, the Victoria Falls, and Lake Nyasa. In 1866 he set out to find the source of the Nile, and he was not heard from until the famous encounter with the journalist Henry Morton STANLEY at Lake Tanganyika (1871), when the legend has it that he was greeted with the phrase “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?”

Lloyd George, David (1863–1945) prime minister, 1916–1922

Born in Manchester, Lloyd George was raised in WALES by his mother and his uncle. After working as a SOLICITOR he entered politics, and in 1890 he was elected a Liberal MEMBER OF PAR- LIAMENT for Caernarfon, which seat he held until his death. Lloyd George was a flamboyant speaker and an advocate of radical policies. An outspoken critic of the BOER WAR, he held his first CABINET post in 1905, and in 1908 he was

made CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER. In this

office he startled everyone with his “People’s Budget” of 1909, which called for greatly increased revenues to pay for more ships and more social programs. This measure precipitated the HOUSE OF LORDS’ rejection of the BUDGET, leading to the Parliament Act of 1911.

During WORLD WAR I Lloyd George served as Minister of Munitions. In 1916 his maneuvers led to the ouster of Herbert ASQUITH, and he became PRIME MINISTER with the support of the Conservatives and many in his own LIBERAL PARTY. He led the government during the final stages of the war, and he called an election immediately afterward, at the head of the wartime coalition. After victory in the 1918 election, he led the British delegation to Paris for the