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occupied the central place in the constitutional order: sovereign, head of the established church, leader of the government, in whose name and service all official acts were performed.

See also CABINET; HOUSE OF LORDS; PRIME MIN-

ISTER; and individual rulers.

monasticism

Monasticism had its roots in the third century, with holy men who lived as hermits in the desert. In the fourth century, communal forms of withdrawal from the world evolved, and these became the main form of monastic life. Men and women devoted themselves to a religious life for the greater glory of God. They lived according to a rule such as that of St. Benedict in the fifth century. They took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. This distinctive element of the Christian church enabled it to spread across Europe. Monastic, or “regular,” clergy were the counterpart of the secular clergy, who managed the public functions of the church: PARISH and diocesan ministry and clerical aid to the government (councillors, judges, and administrators).

The earliest order in BRITAIN was the Benedictine, brought first to Southern ENGLAND by St. Augustine and later to Northern England by St. Wilfrid. In IRELAND the solitary monastic life was preserved beside centers of learning and communal worship in the Celtic church. In addition, through missionary work, the influence of Celtic Christians spread across the British Isles and Europe: Celtic monks were reaching Scotland, England, and the continent from the sixth century, and the missions of Boniface and Alcuin became ministers and teachers in European courts in the eighth and ninth centuries. This work coincided with the terrible visitations of Norse and Danish raids from the end of the eighth century. While many monasteries were destroyed, there was a revival in the 10th century, followed by the introduction of the newer orders of Cistercians (1098), Franciscans (1209), and Dominicans (1215). Each of the orders established monastic houses, endowed by patrons and

supported by alms and bequests as well as by their own productive enterprise. After the 13th century there were few new foundations, and from the late 14th century the economy of monasteries declined, as they suffered from general economic weakness due to plague, inflation, and war. Whether or not the monasteries deteriorated in spiritual terms was and remains an unresolved question. What is sure is that they were dissolved by the order of HENRY VIII, beginning in 1536.

Monck, George, first duke of Albemarle (1608–1670)

general

Born into a landed family in Devonshire, Monck was engaged in the duke of BUCKINGHAM’s expeditions to Cádiz (1625) and La Rochelle (1627). He fought for the Crown in the CIVIL WAR until he was captured in 1644. By 1647 he had joined forces with the parliamentary army and was a MAJOR GENERAL in ULSTER. He later assisted Oliver CROMWELL in the Scottish campaign (1650), and after their victory, Cromwell installed Monck as commander in chief in SCOTLAND. Given a command in the NAVY, he was victorious in the first Dutch War (1652–54). After Cromwell died, Monck brought his army from Scotland and arranged the election of the CONVENTION Parliament, thereby ensuring the RESTORATION of CHARLES II. For this he was made a DUKE, and he continued to serve the Crown.

Monmouth’s Rebellion (1685)

James Scott, the duke of Monmouth, was one of the illegitimate sons of CHARLES II. A successful general, he became the figurehead for extreme opponents of the succession of JAMES VII AND II to the throne. At Charles’s death, Monmouth led an small uprising in the south of England. His group of 3,000–4,000 captured the town of Taunton, but did not move toward the larger target of Bristol. Monmouth issued a proclamation as rightful king, but when his untrained force met the royal army at Sedgmoor, they were quickly defeated.

Monmouth was taken to LONDON, where he was executed. The surviving rebels were tried at the

BLOODY ASSIZES by justice George JEFFREYS, and

many of them were executed.

Montagu, Charles See HALIFAX, CHARLES

MONTAGU, EARL OF.

Montagu, Edward See MANCHESTER,

EDWARD MONTAGU, EARL OF.

Montgomery, Bernard, viscount

(1887–1976) field marshal

The son of an ANGLICAN bishop, Montgomery served in WORLD WAR I and was wounded at Ypres in 1914. He commanded the Third division in the evacuation at DUNKIRK (1940), and he was given the command of the Eighth Army in EGYPT in 1942. There he won the Battle of EL ALAMEIN, and in 1943 his army joined the invasion of Sicily and Italy. Later that year he was appointed the commander of land forces for the invasion of Normandy in 1944. A contentious figure, his personality clashed with most of his colleagues and superiors, but his record on the battlefield was impressive. He commanded occupying forces in Germany in 1945 and was made chief of the imperial general staff in 1946. He later served as deputy supreme commander of the NORTH

ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (1951–58).

Montrose, James Graham, fifth earl and first marquis of (1612–1650)

general

The son of the fourth earl of Montrose, James Graham had sided with the COVENANTERS in 1639, but by 1643 he was in the service of CHARLES I. In 1644 he led a brilliant campaign across the north of SCOTLAND, using Irish and Highland troops. There was little support for him in the Lowlands, and he was defeated at the Battle of Philiphaugh in 1645. He had raised hopes among the royalists,

but in fact his army was small and had little chance of rescuing the fortunes of the king. In 1650 he was defeated at Corbiesdale, betrayed after the battle, taken to EDINBURGH, and executed.

Moore, Henry (1898–1986) sculptor

The foremost English sculptor of the 20th century, Moore came from a family of coal miners in Yorkshire. He studied in Leeds, LONDON, and Paris, and taught at the Royal College of Art and the Chelsea School of Art. His massive figures were startling to traditionalists, his style one of energetic abstraction. From the 1940s his commissions increased, and he produced a large number of works.

Moore, Sir John (1761–1809) soldier

Moore was the son of a Scottish doctor and writer who took him on a long tour of the continent to learn languages. On returning, he joined the British ARMY at age 15. Known for development of light-infantry tactics, he served in the American Revolution, returned to GREAT BRITAIN, and was elected to PARLIAMENT (1784–90). In the wars with France after 1790, he fought in Corsica, the WEST INDIES, Ireland, Holland, and Egypt. He commanded the British forces in the Iberian Peninsula, fighting against French occupation, and he was killed at Corunna after directing a dangerous and successful retreat (1809).

Moray, James Stewart, earl of

(1531–1570) regent

The illegitimate son of JAMES V and half-brother of MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS, Lord Moray was a leader in the provisional government of 1559–60, and he helped to arrange Mary’s return from France to take the throne. He became a leading figure in her regime, promoting a friendly policy toward ENGLAND. He opposed the marriage to Lord DARN- LEY, led an abortive rebellion, and went into exile.

When he returned in 1567, he became regent for JAMES VI, but he was assassinated in 1570.

More, Hannah (1745–1833) writer

The daughter of a Norfolk gentleman and schoolmaster, More ran a school with her sisters but also wrote for the stage and became acquainted with the literary circle of Samuel JOHNSON. Her interests turned toward EVANGELICAL causes, and she used her talent to support religious and conservative ideas as an antidote to the RADICALISM inspired by the French Revolution. Her Cheap Repository Tracts (1795–98) encouraged loyal and dutiful behavior by the lower orders. She also es-

tablished FRIENDLY SOCIETIES and SUNDAY SCHOOLS.

More, St. Thomas (1477–1535) lord chancellor, 1529–1532

More’s father was a judge, and he was educated in LONDON and Oxford. A renowned humanist, the author of Utopia (1516), and friend of Erasmus, More studied LAW at Lincoln’s Inn, where he began a very successful career. A MEMBER OF PAR- LIAMENT by 1504, he became a royal councillor in 1517, and he was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1525. After the fall of Cardinal

WOLSEY, he became LORD CHANCELLOR. As HENRY

VIII’s efforts to rid himself of CATHERINE OF ARAGON increased, the measures he took to dominate the church were anathema to More. He resigned as chancellor in 1532, but the king was determined to silence his famous critic. When More refused to take the oath of succession, denying papal authority, he was imprisoned. Although he refused to openly deny the king’s authority, his interrogators claimed that he had done so. He was executed, and in 1935 he was canonized.

Morgan, Sir Henry (1635–1688) buccaneer

Morgan’s uncle, lieutenant governor of JAMAICA, was killed in 1665, and Morgan led an expedition that captured Porto Bello and slaughtered

the Spanish garrison. He also raided Cuba and Panama. Charged with piracy, he was returned to ENGLAND (1671) but was acquitted and later became lieutenant governor of Jamaica.

Morley, John Morley, viscount

(1838–1923) writer, politician

Editor of the Fortnightly Review, a liberal journal,

Morley became a MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT in

1883. One of the authors of the Radical Programme in 1885, he favored IRISH HOME RULE and opposed the British engagement in the BOER WAR. He wrote The Life of William Ewart Gladstone

(3 vols., 1903). In the LIBERAL PARTY governments (1905–1914), as secretary for INDIA, he drafted reforms that increased Indian participation in government (1909). He resigned in protest at the declaration of war in 1914.

Morris, William (1834–1896) poet, socialist

Educated for a career in the church, Morris renounced that and studied art and architecture. His interest in craftsmanship paralleled his socialist view of industrial society, and he became a highly influential designer, printer, and writer. He established a company to produce his designs for decoration and stained-glass windows. He also founded the Kelmscott Press, through which he had great influence on typography and book design. A founder of the Socialist League (1885),

an offshoot of the SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC FEDERA-

TION, he also launched the journal Commonweal.

Morrison, Herbert (1888–1965)

Labour politician

Born into a working-class family in London, Morrison rose through the ranks of LONDON politics and became LABOUR PARTY secretary, mayor of Hackney, and member of the London County Council prior to his election to the HOUSE OF COM- MONS in 1923. He served in the first Labour governments and was an unsuccessful candidate for

party leader in 1935. In WORLD WAR II he was Winston CHURCHILL’s home secretary (1940–45), responsible for air-raid precautions and emergency services. In the postwar government he was the leader of the House of Commons, and in 1955 he was again defeated for the post of party leader.

Mortimer family

In the 13th century the Mortimer family held great estates in the Welsh marches. Roger Mortimer (1231–82) was an important BARON who fought against Welsh princes and defeated the rebel Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in 1265. Thenceforth he was a strong supporter of Edward I (king of England, 1272–1307).

Roger, first earl of March (1287–1330), was called the virtual ruler of England. As the lover of Edward II’s estranged queen Isabella, he organized an invasion in 1326, bringing with him the king’s son Edward, who was crowned after Mortimer had arranged his father’s deposition and murder. He was made EARL in 1328, but EDWARD III had him arrested and hanged in 1330.

Edmund, third earl of March (1351–81), married Philippa, daughter of Lionel, duke of Clarence and son of Edward III. The house of YORK’s claim to the throne came from this union.

Roger, fourth earl of March (1374–98), was a ward of the Crown and the heir presumptive by virtue of his descent from Lionel, younger son of Edward III. He died while serving as LORD

LIEUTENANT of IRELAND.

Edmund, fifth earl of March (1391–1425), was the ward of the king after his father died in 1398. Although there were uprisings on his behalf in 1405 and 1415, he was loyal to the Crown. His son Richard, duke of York, inherited his claim to the throne.

Morton, James Douglas, earl of

(1525–1581) regent of Scotland

Lord Morton’s three predecessors as regent had died suddenly, but he fared slightly better. As

LORD CHANCELLOR to MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

(1563), he was involved in the murder of David RIZZIO and that of Lord DARNLEY. He was regent from 1572 to 1578 but was later condemned for Darnley’s murder and executed.

Mosley, Sir Oswald (1896–1980)

British fascist leader

Mosley was born in LONDON, and his parents separated when he was five. He attended Winchester, then Sandhurst, where he was expelled in his first year (1914). When WORLD WAR I broke out, he was able to obtain a commission. He applied for the Royal Flying Corps, but he was injured when he crashed his plane while testing for his pilot’s license. He was elected to PARLIA-

MENT as a member of the CONSERVATIVE PARTY in

1918, later as an independent (1922), and then as a LABOUR PARTY candidate (1926). Not satisfied with any of the parties, he chose to found his own British Union of Fascists (1932). His oratory was tinged with antisemitism, and his rallies often provoked violent demonstrations. The group’s activities prompted the Public Order Act of 1936, which banned uniforms and created the power to ban marches deemed dangerous. The party was proscribed in 1940, and Mosley was interned. He had a brief career in postwar politics, advocating IMMIGRATION controls.

Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, first earl (1900–1979)

admiral, viceroy of India, 1947

The great-grandson of Queen

Mountbatten served in the NAVY in WORLD WAR I. In 1942 he was made commander of combined operations, then allied commander in southeast Asia (1943). As the last VICEROY of INDIA, he was in charge of the surrender of power, and after independence he served as governor-general for 10 months. He resumed his naval career and was first sea lord and then chief of the defense staff (1955–65). In 1979 he was assassinated in

IRELAND by the IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY.

Mountjoy, Charles Blount, baron

(1563–1606) soldier

Mountjoy served ELIZABETH I in IRELAND as lord deputy and LORD LIEUTENANT (1601–03). He took over after the aborted mission of Robert Devereaux, earl of ESSEX, defeated Hugh O’NEILL at the Battle of KINSALE, and then took his surrender in 1603. This signified the end of Irish resistance and the seemingly “final” conquest of Ireland.

MP See MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT.

municipal corporations

The government of towns was no less antiquated than representation in PARLIAMENT around 1830. Existing BOROUGHs had chartered governing bodies which in some cases were old and corrupt. Some new industrial cities were without adequate government institutions. The Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 created governments elected by ratepayers, with councils, alderman, and mayors operating on a standard pattern. There were many boroughs that fell outside the new system, and another act in 1882 extended the reforms to most of them.

Murray, Lord George (1690–1760)

Jacobite general

Murray fought in the 1715 JACOBITE rebellion and escaped to France. He joined the invasion

of 1719 and was later pardoned. In 1745 he served Bonnie Prince Charlie (Charles Edward STUART) as the actual commander of his forces, and he was responsible for the early victories (Prestonpans, Clifton, Falkirk). At CULLODEN he was not in favor of the plan of battle, though he fought well. He died in exile in the Netherlands.

Murray, William See MANSFIELD, WILLIAM

MURRAY, LORD.

Mutiny Act

First passed in 1689, and then only for a sixmonth term, the Mutiny Act provided the authority for military discipline. The articles of war (for the NAVY and the ARMY) were confirmed and given force by this law. Its required renewal, later extended to 12 months, was the method of ensuring PARLIAMENT’s safety from the threat of a standing army under the control of the Crown. This law was replaced by the Army Discipline and Regulation Act of 1879, and then the Army and Air Force (annual) Acts in 1917.

Myanmar See BURMA.

nabob

A nickname used for wealthy returnees from 18th century INDIA, from the word nawab, a title for a princely ruler. Their wealth was often a target of criticism, as they used it to buy their way into the aristocracy.

Namibia

Once a German colony, this territory in Southwest AFRICA was governed under a mandate by SOUTH AFRICA until 1966, after which time control was contested between South Africa and the South-West African People’s Organization (SWAPO), which took over after independence in 1990. The country’s economy depends on mineral resources (diamonds, copper, and uranium).

Napier, Sir Charles (1782–1853) soldier

Napier served in IRELAND in 1798, in the Peninsular campaign (1809), and in the war of 1812 before taking a post in Greece. In 1839 he was in command of crown forces in the north of

ENGLAND during the CHARTIST MOVEMENT distur-

bances. Sent to INDIA in 1841, he commanded the conquest of Sind (reportedly sending back the telegraphic message “peccavi”—“I have sinned”).

Napier, John (1550–1617) mathematician

Born at Merchiston Castle near EDINBURGH, Napier was educated at St. Andrews. He inven-

ted logarithms, simplifying complex calculations with exponential numbers; his invention of logarithmically calibrated rods (called “Napier’s bones”) was the basis for the slide rule.

Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815)

The continuation of warfare between France and her European neighbors, which had begun in 1793. Napoleon Bonaparte had become the leading French general by 1799, and his campaigns to conquer Italy and Egypt, while having mixed results, were the foundation for his consolidation of imperial power in France, where he became consul (1799) and then emperor (1804). In the interim, a brief peace (1802–03) was ended when GREAT BRITAIN declared war in 1803. There was a plan to invade ENGLAND, but that was no longer possible after the British under Admiral Horatio NELSON won the Battle of TRAFALGAR (1805). A third coalition was formed (Britain, Austria, Russia, and Sweden) in 1805. Napoleon crushed his continental enemies in the next two years, and with his “Continental System” he tried to close the ports of the continent to British trade. The reply was a blockade of the ports under French control. Meanwhile Napoleon installed puppet regimes in European states under French supervision. He invaded Russia with an army of 500,000 men in 1812, but this was the turning point. When Napoleon entered Moscow, the city was burned to the ground. He was forced to retreat, and the retreat became a rout. The coalition was revived, and a series of victories forced Napoleon out of power in 1814. He returned from exile in 1815 to lead a futile effort to restore French power, and he