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marched around LONDON, seized the capital city, and held his coronation in the new church of the late English king, Edward the Confessor, WEST- MINSTER ABBEY. The conquest brought in a new ruling class and created an unusually centralized medieval kingdom. These events also created a royal connection between England and the continent that lasted until the 15th century.

North, Frederick North, eighth lord

(1732–1792)

(earl of Guilford)

prime minister, 1770–1782

After education at Eton and Trinity College,

OXFORD UNIVERSITY, Lord North entered PARLIA-

MENT in 1754. A supporter of NEWCASTLE, he held office under the elder William PITT. In 1767

he became CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER and in

1770 first lord of the TREASURY. The early years of his administration were very successful in establishing stable government and making reforms in government finance. But North was destined to be the man to face rebellion in the AMERICAN COLONIES. It began innocently with the conciliatory removal of many customs duties, except that on tea. The angry colonial response, especially the Boston Tea Party, provoked coercive action. What the colonists termed INTOLERA- BLE ACTS were needed to restore order, at least from the British perspective. But with mobilization proceeding on both sides, North was forced to pursue military action and thus to lead in circumstances for which he was not well qualified. On a number of occasions he tried to resign, but GEORGE III would not allow it, mainly because North was such a skillful manager of the HOUSE OF COMMONS. Only when his majority there had dwindled did the king allow him to resign in 1782. He briefly returned in 1783 in a coalition with Charles James FOX, but that unnatural union only lasted for nine months. Increasingly blind, North slowly withdrew from politics, an unlucky symbol of defeat, though a highly skilled parliamentarian. He succeeded to the earldom of Guilford two years before his death.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

The alliance formed in 1949 to oppose the threat of the Soviet Union, especially in regard to occupied Germany. An attack on any of the treaty nations was to be considered an attack on all. The original members were the United States, CANADA, GREAT BRITAIN, France, Italy, and Portugal, plus Norway, Iceland, Denmark, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. Greece and Turkey joined in 1952. West Germany became a member in 1955 and Spain in 1985. The organization maintained a military force in Europe, with a joint-command structure and under the protection of American strategic nuclear weapons. With the demise of the Soviet Union in 1989, NATO’s role was revised. On the one hand it became involved in peacekeeping in Bosnia and Kosovo, and on the other it began to extend its influence into central and eastern Europe by inviting new states to join.

North Briton

The journal published by John WILKES, satirizing another titled the Briton, by Tobias Smollett, which supported the government of Lord BUTE. Wilkes only published the weekly for about 10 months from 1762 to 1763, but he outraged his readers with attacks on the peace treaty with France and on Bute. In issue number 45, he alleged that a statement in a speech given by the king was a lie. For this he was prosecuted for seditious libel, and the GENERAL WARRANT issued to arrest him and seize his papers became the focus of the celebrated decision that such WAR- RANTs were illegal.

Northcliffe, Alfred Harmsworth, viscount (1865–1922)

newspaper publisher

Lord Northcliffe formed a publishing house with his brother Harold Harmsworth, viscount ROTH- ERMERE, in 1887. They acquired the Evening News and launched the Daily Mail (1896) and the Daily

Mirror (1903). They later bought the Observer and, in 1908, The Times. Northcliffe used the papers to express his own political views, which unsurprising behavior earned him criticism. He was made a BARON in 1905 and a VISCOUNT in 1918.

Northern Ireland

The partitioned state formed under the Government of Ireland Act of 1920, ratified by the ANGLO-IRISH TREATY of 1921; also known as ULSTER, the name of the ancient province of the northeast. In fact, the modern state has only six of the nine counties from the area of the old province, which decision was made in order to guarantee a Protestant majority in the new state. The constitution included a PARLIAMENT with authority over domestic matters, and a small delegation to Westminster, where authority remained for foreign affairs. The UNIONIST majority steadfastly opposed separation from the UNITED KINGDOM, and there was a single-party Protestant government from 1921 until 1972. The Catholic minority had boycotted the political system of the North, and because of this sectarian division, local government, police, public housing, and schools were riddled with discriminatory features. It was the attempt to moderate these conditions, by Prime Minister Terence O’NEILL’s government, which helped bring about a rapid rise in protests and demonstrations in the late 1960s. These civilrights protests, and the unionist reactions, escalated into confrontations between demonstrators and the Royal Ulster Constabulary, and when these grew serious, the British ARMY was called in.

The army presence was intended to provide protection for Catholics. But with provocation, especially from the IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (IRA), a more dangerous instability soon appeared. Extremist attacks and reprisals involving the army, the IRA, and Protestant loyalist paramilitaries dominated the next three decades (1969–98). British authorities were at a loss to counter the violence. In 1972 they dissolved the government and restored direct rule. There were several attempts to reinstitute local government,

and in 1998 a truce and negotiated settlement brought one more effort to establish a joint Protestant-Catholic provincial government.

Northern Rebellion (1569)

There was widespread hostility to the settlement of the ANGLICAN Church by Queen ELIZABETH I in the 1560s. The opposition was particularly strong in the more remote parts of ENGLAND. Thus, when MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS fled to northern England in 1568 and surrendered to Elizabeth, the CATHOLIC earls of Northumberland and Cumberland hatched a plot to free the Scottish queen and arrange her marriage to the duke of Norfolk. The rebels mustered a small army, destroyed symbols of the reformed church, took over Durham Cathedral, and held a traditional mass. In 1570 the rebels fled to Scotland, their leaders disgraced and punished. The rebellion probably was most important in affirming Elizabeth’s PROTESTANT settlement.

North Sea oil

Discovery of oil in the North Sea in 1969 dramatically changed Britain’s stock of energy resources. Having seen her coal industry decline for much of the 20th century, with extensive pit closures from 1970 onwards, the new resource came none too soon. The oil began to be extracted by 1975, and there were positive effects on the economy in general, and greater impact on Northeast SCOTLAND (Aberdeen in particular), where the base facilities to support oil rigs were located. By the mid-1980s GREAT BRITAIN was an exporter of oil. Although the level of production is expected to slowly decline, this source may remain important well into the 21st century.

Northumberland, Henry Percy, earl of (1341–1408)

Northumberland fought in France with John of Gaunt and was made EARL by RICHARD II (1377), and he became the dominant leader in the

northern MARCHES (the Scottish borders). He and his son “Hotspur” (Sir Henry PERCY) rebelled in 1403 against HENRY IV, and allied with OWEN GLENDOWER in Wales. When their plans failed, Northumberland had to flee to SCOTLAND. He invaded ENGLAND again in 1408 and was killed at Branham Moor.

Northumberland, John Dudley, duke of (1502–1553)

politician

Northumberland’s father Edmund, an adviser of HENRY VII, was attainted and executed in 1510. A soldier, Northumberland helped to put down the PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE (1536). He was warden of the Scottish MARCHES (borders) in 1542, and he led the capture of Boulogne from the French in 1544. Gaining influence within the COUNCIL of the new king EDWARD VI, he was lord president from 1549, created DUKE in 1551, and responsible for pushing Protestant reforms. As the king became seriously ill, Northumberland convinced him to issue letters patent denying the succession to MARY I or ELIZABETH I, and recognizing Lady Jane GREY instead. He arranged Jane’s marriage to his son, but the coup failed, and he was executed.

Northwest Passage

A long-sought arctic water route from the Atlantic to the Pacific—dubbed the Northwest Passage—attracted the explorers Martin FRO- BISHER and Henry Hudson, among others. In the 18th century PARLIAMENT offered a cash prize for its discovery. Several attempts were made in the 19th century, and the first successful navigation was a three-year journey by the Norwegian Roald Amundsen, completed in 1906. The first single-season passage was made in 1944.

Nottingham, Charles Howard, first earl of (1536–1624)

admiral

The son of William, first Lord Howard of Effingham, and grandson of Thomas HOWARD, duke of

Norfolk, Charles Howard served at sea from 1554. In the reign of ELIZABETH I he was both a successful courtier and sailor. Lord high admiral from 1585 to 1618, he commanded the fleet that defeated the Spanish ARMADA. In 1596 he joined Robert Devereaux, earl of ESSEX, in the raid on Cadiz, which prevented another armada. He was in charge of suppressing Essex’s rebellion in 1601, and he led the negotiations for an AngloSpanish treaty in 1604.

Nottingham, Daniel Finch, earl of

(1647–1730)

Tory politician

The eldest son of Heneage Finch, earl of NOTTING- HAM, was educated at Westminster school; Christ Church, OXFORD UNIVERSITY; and the Inner Temple (see INNS OF COURT). A leading figure in the later STUART era, Nottingham supported CHARLES II during the EXCLUSION crisis (1679–81). He was one of three commissioners sent to negotiate with William of Orange in 1688, and he became a SEC-

RETARY OF STATE under WILLIAM III. He was also in

a TORY cabinet in 1702–04 under Queen ANNE.

Nottingham, Heneage Finch, earl of

(1621–1682) lord chancellor

Born in Kent, Nottingham was the son of the recorder of LONDON. After education at Westminster school; Christ Church, OXFORD UNIVER- SITY; and the Inner Temple (see INNS OF COURT), he entered PARLIAMENT in 1660. As solicitor general he was the prosecutor of the regicides (those who had participated in murdering CHARLES I). He was attorney general in 1670 and LORD CHAN- CELLOR in 1674. As an equity judge he developed principles in several areas of CHANCERY practice, and he was able to regularize the procedure of that court.

Nova Scotia

Southeastern province of CANADA, disputed by French and British settlers. The area, called

Acadia by the French, was ceded to GREAT BRITAIN at the Treaty of UTRECHT (1713). The modern name comes from the Scottish colonization attempts from the 17th century. A capital was founded at Halifax in 1749, an assembly was created in 1758, and with the conquest of the city of Louisbourg in that year, French hopes were crushed. The Acadian population had been deported in 1755, and the immigration of American loyalists in the 1780s created a strong British orientation.

nuclear energy

A team of American and British scientists developed the ATOM BOMB during WORLD WAR II. In the 1950s it became possible to produce electrical power using nuclear reactors. At the same time,

reactors produced plutonium for weapons, which was probably the primary purpose of the first British reactor at Calder Hall (1956). In any event, a system of energy-producing reactors was built in the 1960s. They seemed to have significant advantages in efficient energy production and cost savings, and further construction programs were launched in the 1970s, as an oil crisis heightened concerns about available energy. A series of accidents combined with growing environmental fears to slow down the growth of nuclear energy in the 1980s, and at the same time new information showed that the costs of this form of energy were greater than had been thought.

Nyasaland See MALAWI.

Oastler, Richard (1789–1861) reformer

An estate manager in Yorkshire, Oastler was a TORY radical—a staunch supporter of the established church, opponent of universal suffrage, and champion of workers. He campaigned vigorously for limiting working hours in factories and against the new POOR LAW of 1834. So active was he that his employer dismissed him, and he was imprisoned for debt. While in prison he composed Fleet Papers (3 vols., 1841–43).

Oates, Titus (1649–1705) instigator of the popish plot

The son of a parson, Oates was expelled from Merchant Taylor’s school and attended two Cambridge colleges without taking a degree. He managed to be ordained, and he was so obsessed with the threat of the Catholic church that he feigned a conversion to that faith, entered a JESUIT seminary on the continent, and made himself familiar with the inner workings of the order. In 1678 he spread rumors of a plot to murder CHARLES II and install his Catholic brother James (JAMES VII AND II) on the throne. In the hysteria that followed, nine Jesuits were executed, and a total of 35 lost their lives, including Oliver PLUNKETT, the Catholic ARCH- BISHOP of IRELAND. Oates’s testimony was later discredited, and he was convicted of perjury, flogged, and imprisoned in 1685. He was released in 1689.

See also EXCLUSION.

O’Brien, James Bronterre (1805–1864)

Chartist

An Irish BARRISTER, O’Brien became one of the most outspoken leaders of the CHARTIST MOVE- MENT. He was editor of the Poor Man’s Guardian (1831–34) and later wrote for the Northern Star. The movement’s leading thinker, he was called “the schoolmaster of Chartism.” By the 1840s he had disowned revolutionary violence in favor of gradual socialist reform. He founded the National Reform League in 1850.

O’Brien, Murrough See INCHIQUIN,

MURROUGH O’BRIEN, EARL OF.

O’Brien, William (1852–1928)

Irish nationalist

The editor of United Ireland (1881–82) and supporter of the Land League, O’Brien was imprisoned for his radical activities on three different occasions. Elected to PARLIAMENT in 1883, he was returned several times until 1918. He chose not to run in that election, and he declined to serve in the provisional government because he opposed partition.

O’Brien, William Smith (1803–1864)

Irish rebel

A member of the Protestant GENTRY, educated in ENGLAND, O’Brien entered PARLIAMENT in 1828. By the 1830s his nationalist position was clear when he became a member of YOUNG IRELAND

and advocated the repeal of the union. In 1848 he was involved in some violent incidents, the last being an attack upon a group of police. He received a death sentence, commuted to TRANS- PORTATION, and he spent six years in TASMANIA.

O’Casey, Sean (1880–1964)

Irish playwright

A self-educated workingman, O’Casey joined Irish nationalist groups when he was in his 30s. He also began to write plays, the earliest being about the troubled period of Irish history in the 1920s: The Shadow of a Gunman (1923), Juno and the Paycock (1924), The Plough and the Stars (1926).

Occasional Conformity Act (1711)

NONCONFORMISTS had found it possible to avoid penalties under the acts of UNIFORMITY, and even to hold public office, by taking communion in an ANGLICAN church once a year. The Occasional Conformity Act was a sign of the exasperation of TORY partisans, for it imposed a fine on those who attended a dissenting chapel after taking the oath of office. The law was repealed in 1719.

O’Connell, Daniel (1775–1847)

Irish nationalist

Educated in Irish schools and in the Catholic seminaries of St. Omer and Douai, O’Connell became the leading champion of CATHOLIC

EMANCIPATION. A highly successful BARRISTER,

his extensive practice enabled him to create a network that served as the basis for the

CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION, formed in 1823. The

group was dedicated to political reform, land reform, and emancipation, and some have called it the first modern political party. The British government tried to ban the organization, but it was quickly reconstituted. The use of petitions, mass meetings, and peaceful public pressure proved irresistible. In 1828 O’Connell won the parliamentary election in County Clare, but he was barred from taking his seat.

Daniel O’Connell (Library of Congress)

When it became evident that he would be reelected, the duke of WELLINGTON and Robert PEEL opted to allow an emancipation act to become law to avoid widespread Irish protest and violence. In 1829, amid great rejoicing, O’Connell took his seat at Westminster. His tactics were employed by other radical groups, but his next great venture, the Repeal Movement, had nothing like his earlier success. He wanted to remove the Act of UNION, a far more serious target and one which his National Repeal Association (1841) could not achieve. The campaign was sidetracked by the IRISH FAMINE in 1845 and the more radical nationalism of YOUNG IRELAND.

O’Connor, Feargus (1794–1855)

Chartist leader

O’Connor was the son of a Protestant landowner who had belonged to the UNITED IRISHMEN. An

Irish BARRISTER, he was elected to PARLIAMENT in 1832 as a follower of Daniel O’CONNELL. He gravitated toward the new CHARTIST MOVEMENT in the later 1830s, becoming its most colorful and vigorous leader. He edited the Northern Star, the main newspaper of the movement, and piloted a land nationalization scheme (1845–51). In 1847 he was elected to Parliament again, and he presented the last petition for the People’s Charter to the HOUSE OF COMMONS in 1848.

O’Donnell, Hugh Roe, lord of Tyrconnel (1571–1602)

Irish leader

The grandson of a deputy governor of Tyrconnel, O’Donnell escaped from imprisonment by the English authorities (1591) and joined the revolt led by Hugh O’NEILL. After the defeat at KINSALE, he left for the continent and died there. His brother Rory O’DONNELL assumed his place as chief.

O’Donnell, Rory, earl of Tyrconnel

(1575–1608)

Gaelic chief

Brother of Hugh O’DONNELL, Rory O’Donnell had also fought in the Hugh O’NEILL revolt. He submitted to the English and was made an earl by JAMES VI AND I in 1603. Facing encroaching English power in ULSTER, he joined O’Neill in leaving IRELAND in 1607, the so-called FLIGHT OF

THE EARLS.

Oglethorpe, James (1696–1785) philanthropist

Educated at Corpus Christi College, OXFORD UNI- VERSITY, Oglethorpe became an ARMY officer and a MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT. In 1729 he led an inquiry into the conditions on debtors’ prisons. Believing that the plight of the impoverished might be relieved in a colonial setting, he and others obtained a charter for the COLONY of Georgia in 1732. His decision to abolish slavery there aroused great opposition. He also had problems with the mission work of John WESLEY

and George WHITEFIELD. He returned to ENGLAND in 1743.

O’Higgins, Kevin (1892–1927)

Irish nationalist

A member of SINN FÉIN, elected to PARLIAMENT in 1918, O’Higgins represented the provisional government at the ANGLO-IRISH TREATY talks in 1921. He became minister of justice in the new IRISH FREE STATE government, establishing a new police force and judicial system. He was assassinated by republicans in 1927.

Old Bailey

The name of the central criminal court, established in 1834. The name was taken from the street on which it is situated in the City of LON- DON. Built on the site of the former NEWGATE PRISON, the court tries cases for the Greater London area.

Olivier, Laurence Kerr, baron Olivier of Brighton (1907–1989)

actor, director, producer

The son of a clergyman, Olivier was born in Dorking, Surrey. He attended drama school at age 17, and by the late 1920s he was appearing in West End theaters. He was in Noel Coward’s Private Lives and Olivier made his first film, Too Many Crooks, in 1930. Olivier went on to make highly successful films, some with director Alfred HITCHCOCK. In the 1930s he did a large number of Shakespearean roles. During WORLD WAR II he directed filming of Henry V, and in the postwar era he and his actress wife Vivien Leigh starred in many productions. As director of the Old Vic theater, he performed regularly until 1973.

O’Neill, Con See TYRONE, CON O’NEILL, EARL OF.

O’Neill, Hugh See TYRONE, HUGH O’NEILL,

SECOND EARL OF.