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Walsingham, Sir Francis (1532–1590) royal secretary

The son of a Kentish gentleman who died when he was an infant, Walsingham went to King’s College, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. He was a councillor and secretary to Queen ELIZABETH I, a firm Protestant, and an adviser on European diplomacy. He managed the queen’s security, using agents and informants to penetrate and expose plots against her. He uncovered the

RIDOLFI PLOT and that of Anthony BABINGTON,

leading eventually to the conviction of MARY,

QUEEN OF SCOTS.

Warbeck, Perkin (1474–1499) pretender

Warbeck assumed the identity of Edward, earl of Warwick, nephew of EDWARD IV, and then in Ireland in 1491 claimed to be Richard, the second son of the late king, allegedly murdered in the TOWER OF LONDON. Prompted by Irish noblemen and supported by JAMES IV of SCOTLAND and European rulers, Warbeck was a pawn in efforts to unsettle the reign of HENRY VII. When Warbeck came to ENGLAND with an invading force in 1497, he was captured and imprisoned. Upon attempting to escape, he was caught and executed.

wardrobe

The treasury of the royal household, where funds for the king’s immediate use were kept. In the 13th and 14th centuries the wardrobe had authority for military expenses, and there was conflict between it and the EXCHEQUER over financial authority. This was not finally resolved until the wardrobe was abolished in 1782, at which time household financial functions passed to the lord chamberlain.

Wards, Court of

Wardship was one of the ancient feudal dues owed by a vassal to a lord; when an underaged heir succeeded to a title, his lord assumed ward-

ship over the estate during the minority. After the practice of subinfeudation (creation of new, subordinate lordships), was outlawed in 1290, feudal titles tended to revert to Crown control. This court was set up in 1540 to administer wardships and ensure that the Crown received all ancient rights due to it. The court was abolished in 1656 during the COMMONWEALTH OF

ENGLAND.

War of 1812

During the NAPOLEONIC WARS Britain enforced trade restrictions to weaken the French, but these also resulted in disruption of the trade of neutral countries like the United States. American ships were denied access to continental ports, and American seamen were impressed (forced to serve on British ships). The United States Congress declared war in June 1812, and American invasion of Canada was thwarted, while the British retaliated by occupying Washington and burning the White House. After American victories at sea and on the Great Lakes, the Treaty of Ghent (1814) ended the conflict, but none of the original causes was settled.

War Office

The government office in charge of ARMY administration. Created in 1661, its roots can be traced back to a war council of 1620 and earlier royal councils. It was headed by the secretary at war, which post was later overtaken (1794) by the secretary of state for war (and colonies, 1801). The office asserted civilian control over the army, though that was contested well into the 19th century. It was merged into the Ministry of Defence in 1964.

warrant

A written order, issued by an officer of the Crown, e.g., a councillor or a JUSTICE OF THE PEACE. The warrant directs a certain action to be taken (search, arrest, detain) or conveys a grant

of authority. Originally a warrant could only be executed in the area of the issuing jurisdiction, hence the warrants of justices had to be endorsed (“backed”) by others in case a suspect was found at a distance from the place of issue. Since 1925 this was no longer necessary in

ENGLAND and WALES.

See also GENERAL WARRANT.

Warriston, Archibald Johnston, baron

See, JOHNSTON, ARCHIBALD, BARON WARRISTON.

Wars of the Roses See, ROSES, WARS OF THE.

Warwick, Richard Neville, earl of

(1428–1471) rebel aristocrat

Known as “the kingmaker,” Warwick was a very powerful aristocrat who helped EDWARD IV take the throne in 1461, only to rebel and depose him in 1470. His revenues from extensive lands in the North of ENGLAND made him a key figure, but his allegiance faltered before his ambition. He was killed at the Battle of BARNET in 1471.

Washington Conference (1921–1922)

In the wake of WORLD WAR I, with oversized fleets and reduced budgets, the great naval powers met, at the invitation of the U.S. government. The main agreement was a treaty that imposed a 10-year moratorium on warship construction, along with the acceptance of a ratio of capital ships between GREAT BRITAIN, the UNITED STATES, and Japan of 5:5:3, with France and Italy at 1.5. Besides this unique disarmament treaty, there was an agreement to respect the status quo in the Pacific (Britain, France, Japan, and the United States), which supplanted the AngloJapanese alliance of 1902. There was also a third pact (adding the Netherlands, Portugal, Belgium, and China), a nine-power agreement that pledged to honor China’s independence and territorial integrity.

Waterloo, Battle of (1815)

After a year in exile, Napoleon Bonaparte returned to power in France in March 1815. This famous battle occurred in Belgium, Napoleon attacking the army of the duke of WELLINGTON. After several French attacks were repulsed, the British advanced and linked up with the Prussian general Blucher’s forces to destroy the French army. There were very heavy casualties on both sides, about 25,000 French (of 72,000); 15,000 of Wellington’s 68,000; and 8,000 of Blucher’s 45,000. Napoleon was again sent into exile (at a safe distance in St. Helena), and the allies resumed the negotiations at the Congress of VIENNA.

Watt, James (1736–1819) engineer

An instrument maker at Glasgow University, Watt devised an important improvement to Thomas NEWCOMEN’s engine by adding a condenser. He continued to work with the steam engine, setting up a partnership with the English manufacturer Matthew BOULTON in 1774 to manufacture the engines in Birmingham. Watt’s further patented improvements increased the efficiency and application of the engine. In all, his work made a critical contribution to the

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.

Waugh, Evelyn (1903–1966) novelist

After OXFORD UNIVERSITY and a stint as a schoolteacher, Waugh began to write satirical novels based on his own experiences. These included

Decline and Fall (1928), Vile Bodies (1930), Scoop (1938), Brideshead Revisited (1945), and his Sword of Honour trilogy (1962).

Wavell, Archibald Percival Wavell, first earl (1883–1950)

general

Lord Wavell commanded forces in the Middle East (1939–1941). Though victorious against Italian armies in 1940 and 1941, he was ordered

to defend Greece against German attacks and was defeated. He was relieved by Claude AUCHINLECK and assigned to command in INDIA, and then overall command in the South Pacific. With small forces, he struggled to stop Japanese advances in BURMA. Made VICEROY of India in 1943, he did all he could to bring about a peaceful settlement, being replaced at the last minute by Lord MOUNTBATTEN in 1947.

Webb, Beatrice (1858–1943) and Webb, Sidney (1859–1947)

social reformers

Charter members of the FABIAN SOCIETY, Sidney and Beatrice Webb were married in 1892. Their socialist philosophy was reflected in extensive social research and publications, plus a busy public life: Sidney was a LONDON county councillor (1892–1910) and a Labour MEMBER OF PARLIA- MENT (1922–29); Beatrice served on the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws (1905–09). They wrote The History of Trade Unionism (1894); Industrial Democracy (1897); and a mammoth history of English Local Government (9 vols., 1906–29), based on years of research. They were also notable for other major contributions: joining in the founding of the London School of Economics and Political Science (1895); founding the New Statesman (1913); and drafting the new constitution of the LABOUR PARTY in 1918, its policy outlined in Labour and the New Social Order. They also naively praised the regime of Josef Stalin in their

Soviet Communism: A New Civilization (1935).

Wedgwood, Josiah (1730–1795) manufacturer

Wedgwood was the youngest of 13 children of a Staffordshire potter. He set up his own pottery factory in 1759, surpassing his competitors with excellent design and clever salesmanship. He also had a keen interest in social questions, and his radical views showed in his support for American independence, French revolution, and slavery abolition. He produced for both the luxury and ordinary markets. Most notable was his

952-piece service, made for Catherine the Great, displayed in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg. Although he gave generously to charities, he still left a fortune of over £500,000.

welfare state

The idea of state-supported comprehensive social insurance developed in the first half of the 20th century, and the experience of two world wars and the Great DEPRESSION propelled the nation toward this goal. The term “welfare state” was coined in the 1930s, and the major steps to achieve the idea were taken by the 1945 LABOUR PARTY government. The concept of social insurance was as old as 18th-century benefit clubs,

early TRADE UNIONS, and FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. The

entry of government came at the end of the 19th century with the enactment of workmen’s compensation insurance in 1897. Soon after, there were schemes for old-age pensions (1908) and a NATIONAL INSURANCE Act (1911), which protected a limited number of workers from lost wages. Over the next decades, increases in unemployment insurance, provision of public housing, and other programs were added, while the old POOR LAW was reformed and then dismantled (1929). During WORLD WAR II, the BEVERIDGE report presented the first general scheme for social insurance (1942). It included social-security measures; a full-employment policy; and support for health, EDUCATION, and housing. In the 1940s most of the proposals were put into law, and in later decades there were additions made to the forms of assistance, while a broad consensus across parties supported the general idea. By 1990 some 40 percent of government spending was directed toward the social-welfare provisions, and that figure was responsible for shifting views on the affordability of the welfare state.

Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, first duke of (1769–1852)

general; prime minister, 1828–1830

Born into an Anglo-Irish noble family, Wellington entered the ARMY, fought in Flanders (1794),

Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington

(Hulton/Archive)

and was transferred to INDIA, where his older brother was governor-general. There he had his first major military victories, defeating native forces in two important battles. For a brief period he served in government, as a MEMBER OF PARLIA- MENT and chief secretary for IRELAND (1807–09). Then he took a command in Portugal, where British forces were trying to stop French conquest of the peninsula. After an early set of failures and a recall for a government inquiry, he returned to Portugal, made a successful defense against the French, and ultimately pursued their army back into France. He was attending the first session of the Congress of VIENNA in 1815 when

Napoleon Bonaparte returned to Paris. Wellington was made commander of the British forces, and he led his army to victory at the Battle of WATERLOO. After the war he commanded the army of occupation in France (1815–18).

Returning to ENGLAND, Wellington again entered PARLIAMENT in Lord LIVERPOOL’s administration, and he became PRIME MINISTER in 1828. Conservatives expected him to stoutly defend the established order, and when he accepted CATHO- LIC EMANCIPATION in 1829, it was regarded by some as treachery, when in fact it was a pragmatic, tactical retreat. He did firmly oppose political reform, but with a divided party, he had to resign, and the government of Earl GREY took office. In the reform-bill debate, Wellington eventually led a large group of TORY peers in abstaining, rather than see the HOUSE OF LORDS swamped with new peers to pass the bill. From this point he became an elder statesman, a highly regarded national hero for many, a symbol of an unloved old order for others.

Wells, H(erbert) G(eorge) (1866–1946) writer

After studies in science, Wells wrote a series of science-fiction works: The Time Machine (1895),

The Island of Dr. Moreau (1896), The War of the Worlds (1898), and The First Men on the Moon

(1901). He was active in the FABIAN SOCIETY, and his novels were often written with an eye on social questions: Tono-Bungay (1909), Ann Veronica (1909), The History of Mr Polly (1910), and The New Machiavelli (1911). In 1914 he wrote The War That Will End War, which probably led to his service as Minister of Information. After WORLD

he turned to history, but in his own unique manner, with The Outline of History

(1920), which promised to distill the lessons of history for the “salvation” of mankind.

Welsh Assembly

WALES was the only region of the British Isles without a native legislature. The matter had been

discussed and debated for much of the 1960s, and a referendum on the issue had failed to carry in 1979. A similar measure passed in 1997, by a very small majority. The newly formed Welsh Assembly convened for its inaugural session on May 26, 1999.

Wentworth, Charles See ROCKINGHAM,

CHARLES WENTWORTH, MARQUIS OF.

Wentworth, Thomas See STRAFFORD,

THOMAS WENTWORTH, EARL OF.

Wentworth, Peter (1530–1596) and Wentworth, Paul (1533–1593)

The Wentworth brothers were outspoken PURI- TAN members of PARLIAMENT under Queen ELIZA- BETH I. Peter was imprisoned on several occasions for his blunt comments on Crown influence in Parliament, on the ROYAL SUPREMACY, and on the royal succession.

Wesley, John (1703–1791) and Wesley, Charles (1707–1788)

pioneers of Methodism

The Wesley brothers were both ANGLICAN priests who worked together. Charles formed the Holy Club at OXFORD UNIVERSITY in 1729. John had a conversion in 1738, which was followed by his sensational career of EVANGELICAL preaching. He began to address large, outdoor meetings in 1739, and over the next 50 years he traveled more than 25,000 miles and gave over 40,000 sermons. Charles was a masterful composer of hymns, writing more than 6,000 in his career. The Wesleys considered themselves Anglicans who were reforming the church from within; however, their followers—and the establish- ment—saw them as leaders of a breakaway movement. That in fact was what followed after John’s death. He had built a network of lay preachers organized into sessions and regular

meetings, a structure that could not easily be accommodated in the established church.

West Indies

The islands of the Caribbean, first settled by Europeans after the voyage of Christopher Columbus. Spain was followed by English, French, and Dutch colonists in the 17th century. The earliest English colonies were St. Kitts (1623), BARBADOS (1627), and the Bahamas (1629). JAMAICA was conquered in 1655, and many other islands were taken by GREAT BRITAIN in the wars of the 18th century. The Europeans had imported slaves to work the sugar plantations, and the islands were sources of considerable wealth as well as centers for piracy. In the 19th and 20th centuries the islands lost their economic value but gained their political independence. Spain lost its presence in 1898, the United States asserting control over Puerto Rico and a protectorate over Cuba. Britain tried to form an island federation in 1958, but rivalries within it caused a breakup, and in the next 25 years most of the islands became independent.

Westminster, Statute of

Several acts of PARLIAMENT have had this designation, beginning in the reign of Edward I. That king had three major acts containing statements or restatements of LAW on many issues (1275, 1285, and 1290). In the modern era, the name was applied to an act of 1931 which formalized the British Commonwealth (see BRITISH EMPIRE

AND COMMONWEALTH), recognizing the DOMIN-

IONs as “autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another.”

Westminster Abbey

In 1065 Edward the Confessor began enlarging the small chapel at Thorney Island, which became the present Westminster Abbey and was completed just in time for his own death (1066).

Because of its new importance, William the Conqueror became the first monarch to be crowned there. He has been followed by all of his successors, and there are 16 monarchs buried there as well. Very little of the original structure remains, and the present abbey was begun by Henry III in 1245. The palace of Westminster— that is, the complex of buildings adjoining the abbey—was used by royalty for many centuries. It contained a hall begun by William II which was the site of PARLIAMENT’s meetings for three centuries before the REFORMATION. At that time the monastery was spared the fate of most religious houses, and eventually it became the home of one of the great public schools, Westminster. The abbey has been rebuilt several times; the towers of the western front were designed by Nicholas Hawksmoor in the 18th century. It is the burial site of many of the greatest figures in British history: Edmund SPENSER, Isaac NEWTON, Samuel JOHNSON, and William PITT. The British pantheon was declared full in the 20th century, but plaques are still placed to commemorate war dead.

Westminster Assembly (1643)

As part of PARLIAMENT’s effort to reform the English Church, an assembly was convened to consider possible changes. Some 30 members of both houses plus 121 ministers were invited, including representatives from Scotland. Despite severe disagreements, the assembly produced a

Directory of Worship, which replaced the BOOK OF

(1645). The assembly also drafted a statement of doctrinal beliefs called the Westminster Confession (1646), which remained a standard in PRESBYTERIAN churches for many years. Meetings of the assembly ended in 1653.

Whigs

Derived from a derogatory name for Scottish COVENANTERS (“whiggamore”), Whig was used as a label to mark the opponents of James, duke of York (later JAMES VII AND II), during the EXCLU-

SION crisis (1679–81). The core beliefs of the Whigs were that political authority derived from a social contract (see John LOCKE), and if the king violated this implied agreement, it was lawful to resist him. This was made explicit in the

GLORIOUS REVOLUTION by the DECLARATION OF

RIGHTS (1689). The Whigs were divided over the means and methods of governing, a court party favoring the more traditional royalist style and a country party that opposed government growth, TAXATION, and war. Some of the latter found a home in the TORY Party, which, however, was marginalized after 1715, because it was identified with the JACOBITE rebellion. Whig politicians dominated political life from 1715 to 1760, but with GEORGE III the political lines blurred again. The king wanted loyal ministers, and he had low regard for party labels. There was a long period of Tory dominance, from 1784 to 1829, followed by a Whig revival (1830–60) and a transition to the modern LIBERAL PARTY. The term “Whig” was still used for the more aristocratic members of that party, until they migrated to the Tories at the end of the 19th century. Since then there has been little or no use for the term in party politics.

whip

A PARLIAMENT member whose duty it is to assure the attendance and participation of others. The name came from the fox hunt, where a “whipper in” kept the hunting dogs from straying. Today the government and the opposition each have a chief whip. They arrange the order of business, and they each have a number of assistants. The whip is also the name of the weekly schedule, sent to members by each chief, in which each item is underlined one, two, or three times, indicating the degree of importance of the members’ attendance.

Whiteboys

Agrarian secret societies in IRELAND, which opposed enclosures, TITHEs, and evictions. Their