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vative than his: monetarist economic policies, strong law-and-order and defense policies, and stout resistance to TRADE UNIONS were marked with her signature style of an abrasive and assured sense of righteousness. Her victory in the Falklands War (1982) against Argentine occupation of the tiny islands in the South Atlantic was a patriotic success and an echo of imperial days.

Thatcher achieved a constructive relationship with U.S. president Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, appearing to keep Britain in an important position in international affairs. Her relation with the EUROPEAN ECO- NOMIC COMMUNITY was marked by a desire to participate combined with a basic distrust of the continental machinery of government. Her internal policies were generally based on a rejection of postwar governmental remedies, and thus she began the privatization of many sectors of the economy. In 1990, facing debates over her POLL TAX (alias “community charge”) and European currency, and having a revolt within her own CABINET, she confronted an election for the leadership of the party. While taking the most votes, her margin was slender, and she chose to resign. She was succeeded by John MAJOR as party leader and prime minister.

Thirty-nine Articles (1563)

The statement of doctrine of the CHURCH OF ENGLAND. The articles of 1563 were a modified form of an earlier 42 articles (1553), those being preceded by assorted prescriptions from the 1530s onwards. The articles were debated and affirmed in the convocations of the clergy, and rendered as a statute in 1571.

Titanic

Then the world’s largest steamship, over 46,000 tons, the Titanic was built in Belfast in 1912. The “unsinkable” vessel collided with an iceberg on her maiden voyage in April that same year. A fleet of ships responded to her distress calls, but over 1,500 passengers and crew were lost. The

wreck was located by a robot submarine in 1985, two and a half miles below the surface. Salvage operations began in 1987, and in 1996 a crew managed to lift a section of the hull almost two miles off the bottom, but the flotation device failed, and the section sank.

tithe

One-tenth of earnings or annual produce, owed to the PARISH church. This formula was used in the early church, but tithes of a parish were often assigned to monastic and college foundations, and in the DISSOLUTION they were taken over by laymen. Tithes were owed by all, regardless of denomination, and thus they became a source of friction in later years. Tithes were sometimes changed to rent-charges (commutation). General acts were passed for this purpose

for ENGLAND and WALES (1836) and IRELAND

(1838). Redemption of these charges began in

1918 and was completed by 1996. In SCOTLAND the tithe was called a teind, payable on similar terms until legislation in 1925 revised the system and substituted fixed monetary values.

Tizard, Sir Henry (1885–1959) scientist

Tizard served in the Royal Flying Corps (1915–17), and as a student of chemistry he worked with aviation fuels. He went on to work in government research departments, and in 1934 he headed the Aeronautical Research Committee (1933–43) and the Air Defence Committee (1935–40). The latter was in charge of developing RADAR, but Tizard resigned because of a feud with Frederick Lindemann, one of Winston CHURCHILL’s close advisers.

Toleration Act (1689)

This act relieved DISSENTERS of the restrictions of the CLARENDON CODE. They were allowed to have their own teachers, preachers, and places of worship. They were not, however, allowed to serve in public office until 1828, and UNITARIANS and

Catholics did not benefit from the act. Nevertheless, this first formal toleration of dissent did establish a legal precedent and the official acceptance of differences in religious belief.

Tone, (Theobald) Wolfe (1763–1798)

Irish patriot

The son of a coachmaker in DUBLIN, Tone attended Trinity College there and the Middle Temple (see INNS OF COURT) in LONDON. Though a Protestant Dublin lawyer, he supported Catholic relief and wrote an Argument on behalf of the Catholics of Ireland (1791). A founder of the UNITED IRISH- MEN, he became a radical supporter of an Irish republic. In exile in France, he sought military help for the Irish cause, but the two efforts made by the French were abortive (1796 and 1798). Tone was arrested and convicted of TREASON (1798), but he committed suicide before his trial.

Tory

From an Irish word for outlaw, the name was a slur used in the 1670s to refer to the supporters of James, the Duke of York (JAMES VII AND II), and his Catholic and royalist supporters. They were divided by the of 1688, some giving support to the new regime of WILLIAM III, the more orthodox refusing to allow the deposition of a rightful ruler. The name Tory has remained in use until today as a casual ref-

erence to the CONSERVATIVE PARTY.

Tower of London

The stone castle beside the Roman wall of LON- DON erected (1077–1097) by William the Conqueror was one of the major Norman forts in ENGLAND. Added enclosures were built over the next six centuries. The White Tower is the only part remaining from the original castle, with

other traces of later structures. The Tower was used as a royal residence into the 17th century, and it has also been used as a prison, a mint, and an armory. Today it is still an ARMY fort and home to the Crown Jewels.

Townshend, Charles (1725–1767) politician

Grandson of Charles “Turnip” TOWNSHEND and a WHIG member of PARLIAMENT, Townshend studied at Clare College, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, and later at Leyden and at Lincoln’s Inn. He held a number of offices and became CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER under William PITT in 1766. He proposed a series of new duties on American trade (lead, glass, paper, and tea), partly to offset his failure to get Parliament to approve a land tax at a sufficient level to meet expenses. The duties met with widespread resistance in the AMERICAN COLONIES, and Lord NORTH repealed all but the duty on tea in 1770.

Townshend, Charles Townshend, second viscount (1674–1738)

diplomat, agriculturalist

Lord Townshend’s father had been ennobled by CHARLES II. Townshend was educated at Eton and King’s College, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. A secretary of state under Robert WALPOLE, his main interest was in foreign affairs. He was LORD LIEU- TENANT of IRELAND in 1717, then took office as Walpole’s main assistant in foreign policy (1720–30). Upon retiring from government, he spent his time on his Norfolk estate, devoting himself to agricultural improvements. He studied livestock breeding, soil culture, and crop rotation. His experiments with turnips in rotation with other crops earned him the nickname “Turnip” Townshend.

Trades Union Congress (TUC)

The large number of TRADE UNIONs had relatively little voice in political affairs, as they

were small and separate bodies. Union councils were organized in several cities, and in 1868 a group of 34 delegates met in Manchester to form the Trades Union Congress, a national coordinating body. At first there was no organizational structure, only an annual meeting. In 1871 a parliamentary committee was formed to lobby on behalf of unions. As the new industrial unions grew, so did the size of the TUC and its constituent body. The group joined the Labour Representation Committee in 1900, to help co-ordinate election plans, and this led to the formation of the LABOUR PARTY. Some 2.5 million workers were connected to the TUC by 1914, and it was useful that the organization adopted a “strike truce” for the duration of the war. The TUC continued to grow, and its political role, except for the disaster of the GENERAL STRIKE (1926), also grew. In the decades after the WORLD WAR II, it was a major political force. In the 1980s, however, as membership fell and the government took a harder line against unions, the political influence of the TUC declined.

trade union

An organized group of workers, usually in a single trade, the union superseded the older craft GUILD as a means of protecting common interests. Trade unions appeared in the 18th and early 19th centuries, perhaps as a byproduct of industrial growth and rising urban population. They were distrusted by employers and property owners, who saw the union as a source of political and economic conflict. Trade unions were slow to gain legal recognition: the COMMON LAW prohibited a “combination” in restraint of trade, and this injunction was reinforced by statutes in 1799 and 1800. The COMBINATION ACTS were repealed by 1825, and over the rest of the 19th century, progressive legislation improved working conditions, and the unions themselves gained legal status in the Trade Union Act of 1871. Until this time, union activity was led by relatively small groups of skilled workers.

By 1868 unions had come together to form the TRADES UNION CONGRESS, a lobbying organization. Also in the last quarter of the century, larger unions of miners, dockworkers, railwaymen, and general laborers formed a new and militant segment of the movement. In this period the earlier fears of political danger were heightened by the idea of syndicalist general strikes and union intimidation. In the end, however, union members found a political outlet in the new LABOUR PARTY or other socialist groups, and there was but one instance of a GENERAL STRIKE, in 1926. Union membership rose from 4 million (1914) to over 8 million (1920). There was a steep decline during the DEPRESSION, and the number passed 8 million again in 1945. A new high of 13.5 million (1979) represented about 58 percent of the workforce, but then the numbers fell again, partly in response to the antiunion measures of the Margaret THATCHER era.

Trafalgar, Battle of (1805)

Admiral Horatio NELSON led the British fleet in a daring and unconventional attack on the combined French and Spanish fleets as they were heading from Cadiz to the Mediterranean. In fighting off Cape Trafalgar, which lasted for an afternoon, the British sailed into the enemy fleet at a right angle to their course, broke the line, and engaged the ships at close quarters. Some 18 French ships were captured, and none of the British ships were lost. There were about 2,000 enemy sailors killed to 500 of the British. Nelson himself died in the battle, having been shot by a sniper in the French flagship. The victory was the decisive naval engagement of the NAPO-

LEONIC WARS, and it assured GREAT BRITAIN’s mar-

itime supremacy.

tram

Urban passenger railways were first used for horse-drawn, then steam-powered, and finally electrical vehicles. The latter were developed in the years after 1860, and by 1910 there were

some 3,000 miles in operation. Called trams, they declined from the 1920s, in competition with motor coaches, and in 1952 the last tram in LON- DON was scrapped. However, by the end of the century, several cities such as Manchester and Sheffield had rebuilt systems of light railways.

transportation

Convicts sentenced to death might be pardoned on condition of being transported to overseas possessions, penal colonies or otherwise. The practice began in the early 17th century, with the AMERICAN COLONIES serving as the original destination. After the loss of those colonies, AUSTRALIA was used for this purpose, as was TASMANIA. In the 19th century this method of punishment was terminated, first in New South Wales (1840), then Tasmania (1853), and Western Australia (1868).

Transvaal

The Transvaal was established as an independent republic by the Boer or Afrikaner settlers of SOUTH AFRICA when they moved north from the CAPE COLONY in the early 19th century to escape British control. Britain annexed the Transvaal in 1877, but restored its autonomy in 1881. Over the next decade gold was discovered in the territory, and that brought an influx of foreign (mainly British) miners and prospectors. These alien uitlanders were discriminated against by the government of the republic, and the situation was used as a pretext for renewed British intervention, which led to the BOER WAR and the eventual annexation of the republic as part of the Union of South Africa (1910).

treason

The crime of plotting against the king was always seen as the most serious offense. By 1352 the statute of treason defined the crime as plotting the death of the king; violating the queen (or the king’s eldest daughter, or his eldest son’s wife);

or, as added crimes, counterfeiting the GREAT SEAL or the king’s coin; or killing his chancellor, treasurer, or judges. Many more crimes were added, the TUDORs alone creating 60 new treason offenses. The Treasonable Practices Act of 1795 expanded the definition of treason to include any kind of intimidation of the monarch or PARLIA- MENT. The classic punishment was to hang the criminal until almost dead, cut him down and disembowel him, and then cut off all his limbs— “drawing and quartering”—so that they might be taken to different parts of the kingdom and displayed to his Majesty’s subjects. In the early 19th century the punishment was reduced and it was made the same as murder by 1870.

treasury

The royal repository of precious metals, jewels, and other valuables. All kings had such an office, and in the early Middle Ages the treasurer presided over the EXCHEQUER, a combined court and financial office. These two functions were separated by the early modern period, and the lord high treasurer wielded growing power as the Crown’s chief minister. The treasury was converted to a board of commissioners in the 17th century, its work becoming much more complex as the government and economy grew. These lords of the treasury were headed by a first lord, a position of major importance and hence the one typically held in the 18th century by the emerging PRIME MINISTER. The treasury was generally responsible for raising and managing revenues, and its manager, the CHANCEL-

LOR OF THE EXCHEQUER, became the primary

official in charge of the BUDGET. Increasing public spending and heightened concerns over monetary and fiscal policy make the modern treasury the central department of state.

Trenchard, Hugh (1873–1956) air marshal

A major in the ARMY, Trenchard joined the Royal Flying Corps in 1912, commanding the force in Western Europe during WORLD WAR I. As chief of

the air staff (1919–29), he established a bomber force that was vital to Britain’s security.

Trevithick, Richard (1771–1833) locomotive inventor

Trevithick’s father was a mining engineer, and in the process of working with mine engines, Trevithick developed the first steam carriage (1801) and locomotive (1804). This work laid the foundation for modern RAILWAYS. He also experimented with many other devices (iron ships, screw propellers, and other boilers and engines). He was not successful with the business side of his ventures and died penniless.

Triple Alliance

The term has been applied to several diplomatic alignments. In 1668 an Anglo-Dutch alliance was joined by Sweden to oppose France. In 1716 GREAT BRITAIN and France were joined by the United Provinces in a settlement whereby each offered security to the others in terms of their dynastic problems. In 1882 Germany, AustriaHungary, and Italy joined in a military alliance, though in 1914 Italy did not fight against Britain, France, and Russia.

Troyes, Treaty of (1420)

After HENRY V’s resounding victories in France, he negotiated an agreement—the Treaty of Troyes—whereby he stood to inherit the crown of France, and he was wed to Princess Catherine, the daughter of Charles VI, the reigning French king. With Henry’s death in 1422, his titles passed to his infant son, HENRY VI.

Tudor, house of

The origins of this English dynasty came, on one side, from Welshmen; on the other, from King EDWARD III, through John of Gaunt. That line had been declared illegitimate during the dynastic Wars of the ROSES, but it was later re-legitimized. The widow of HENRY V, Catherine, married Owen

Tudor, and their son Edmund married Margaret BEAUFORT (the great-granddaughter of Gaunt). Edmund was created earl of Richmond. His son, later HENRY VII, grew up in WALES and in France before leading a small army in 1485 to defeat RICHARD III at the Battle of BOSWORTH. Henry and his four successors restored royal authority, which had been diminished during the Wars of the ROSES. They further exalted the power and sovereignty of the Crown. The REFORMATION, the modernization of government, and the enhanced power of PARLIAMENT were all parts of their success. Part of their legacy was the concentration of English, Welsh, Irish, and Scottish realms into a (more or less) united regime by 1603.

See also EDWARD VI; ELIZABETH I; HENRY VIII;

MARY I.

Tudor, Margaret (1489–1541) queen of Scots, 1503–1513

Daughter of HENRY VII, Margaret married JAMES IV of SCOTLAND in 1503. Of their six children, only JAMES V survived. Her husband was killed in the terrible defeat at FLODDEN (1513), and Margaret involved herself in the political struggles around her young son’s REGENCY. She married Archibald Douglas, the earl of Angus (1514), but was forced to give up the regency in 1515. After a time in ENGLAND, she returned to Scotland, divorced Angus, and married Henry Stewart, Lord Methven in 1527. It is through her first marriage that the claim to the English throne passed to her great-grandson JAMES VI AND I.

Turner, J(oseph) M(allord) W(illiam)

(1775–1851) painter

A brilliant student at the ROYAL ACADEMY (1789), Turner was elected to the academy in 1802 and a professor there in 1807. His landscapes were a paramount example of romantic influence in art, his choice of subjects emphasizing the power of nature. His early work was mainly in watercolor, and he began to work in oil in 1796. He made many sketching tours of GREAT BRITAIN and

the continent. He left his massive collection (300 oils and 19,000 watercolors) to the nation, but only in 1987 was a Turner Gallery established at the Tate Gallery in LONDON.

turnpike

A tollgate on early improved roads. Turnpike trusts were established in the 18th century to manage toll ROADS, often under authority of local acts of PARLIAMENT. There was a boom in such road building in the later 18th century, paralleled by the expansion of canals and later RAILWAYS. These were all important elements of the indus-

trial growth of ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, and WALES.

Tweedsmuir, Baron See BUCHAN, JOHN,

BARON TWEEDSMUIR.

Tyburn

The site of public executions in LONDON, a hill near the Tyburn, a tributary of the Thames. The location is near the present-day Marble Arch, at the northeast corner of Hyde Park. Executions were moved to NEWGATE PRISON in 1783.

Tyndale, William (1494–1536) translator of the Bible

Tyndale began an English translation of the BIBLE without royal or church authority. He was forced to move to Germany, where he completed the New Testament in 1525. Copies were smuggled into ENGLAND, and he was thereafter a marked man, despite his published support for temporal power in religious matters (The Obedience of a Christian Man, 1528). He attacked HENRY VIII’s divorce scheme in Practice of Prelates (1530). He was captured and burned as a heretic in Flanders.

Tyrconnel See O’DONNELL, HUGH ROE,

LORD OF TYRCONNEL; O’DONNELL, RORY, EARL

OF TYRCONNEL.