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1. Old English

1. General characteristics

The vocabulary of Old English was rather extensive. It is said to have contained about 50 000 words. These words were mainly native words. They could be divided into a number of strata. The oldest stratum was composed of words coming from the Common Indo-European parent tongue.

Many of these words were inherited by English together with some other Indo-European languages from the same common source, and we shall find related words in various Indo-European languages. Compare:

Old English New English Latin Russian

mōþor mother mater мать

niht night nox ночь

nēowe new novus новый

beran bear ferre брать

Another layer, relatively more recent, was words inherited by English and other Germanic languages from the same common Germanic sources. You will find them in many languages, but only those belonging to the Germanic group. Compare:

Old English New English German

eorðe earth Erde

land land Land

sǽ sea See

grēne green grűn

findan find finden

The third stratum, and not very extensive, was made up of words that existed only in English, for instance, the word clypian (to call), the root preserved somewhat obsolete words yclept (named).

The vocabulary was changing all the time, old words becoming extinct and new words entering the language, enriching it.

As it is known, there are two principal ways of enriching the vocabulary of a language: internal means – those that are inherited in the language itself, and external means, which result from contacts between peoples. The English – speaking people of that period mainly used internal means of enriching the vocabulary to adapt their language to the expression of more varied or new notions.

1.2. Means of enriching vocabulary

While creating new words the English language, as we have mentioned above, principally resorted to its own, internal means: word derivation, primary affixation and vowel interchange, and word composition.

1.2.1. Internal means of enriching vocabulary

• word derivation

In Old English affixation was widely used as a word-building means.

There were very many suffixes, with the help of which new nouns, adjectives, adverbs and sometimes verbs were formed, for instance:

• noun suffixes of concrete nouns:

-ere fisc + ere (fisher)

-estre spin + estre (spinster) } denoting the doer of the action

-inз cyn + inз (king)

• noun suffixes of abstract nouns:

-ð trēow + ð (truth)

-nis зōd + nis (goodness)

-scip frēnd + scip (friendship)

-dōm frēo + dōm (freedom)

-hād cild + hād (childhood)

• adjective suffixes

-iз īs + iз (icy), bys + iз (busy)

-isc Engl + isc (English), Frens + isc (French)

-ful car + ful (careful)

-lēas slæp + lēas (sleepless)

Prefixes were used on a limited scale and they generally had a negative meaning:

for- for + Зiefan (forgive)

mis- mis + dæd (misdeed)

un- un + cūð (uncouth)

Vowel interchange:

Noun Verb

Sonз (song) singan (to sing)

Dōm (doom) deman (to deem)

- Word composition

Word composition was a well-developed means of enriching vocabulary in Old English. For instance:

Nouns

sǽ + man (seaman), gold + smið (goldsmith),

monan +dæз (Monday), sunan + dæз (Sunday)

Engla + land (land of Angles)

Adjective

īc + ceald (ice-cold)

3. External means of enriching vocabulary

As we understand, borrowings into a language are a result of contacts with other nations. The Germanic tribes had but few contacts with other nations at the beginning of A.D., consequently the number of borrowed words in Old English was not great. The main borrowings that we can single out in Old English were Latin and Celtic borrowings.

• Latin borrowings

The first Latin borrowings entered the language before the Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians invaded the British Isles, i.e. at the time when they still lived on the continent. Due to trade relations with their southern powerful neighbour – the Roman Empire – Germanic tribes learned a number of products that had been unknown to then, and, consequently, their names. So the first stratum of borrowings is mainly words connected with trade. Many of them are preserved in Modern English, such as:

pound, inch, pepper, cheese, wine, apple, pear, plumb, etc.

The second stratum of words was composed of loan Latin words that the German tribes borrowed already on British soil from the Romanized Celts, whom they had conquered in the 5^th century. Those were words connected with building and architecture, as the preserved nowadays:

title, wall, wall, mill, etc.

They denoted objects which the Germanic invaders encountered on the British Isles.

The third stratum of Latin loan words was composed of words borrowed after the introduction of the Christian religion. They are generally of a religious nature, such as the present-day words:

bishop, devil, apostle, monk.

As Latin was the language of learning at the time, there also entered the language some words that were not directly connected with religion, such as:

Master, school, palm, lion, tiger, plant, astronomy, etc.

- Celtic borrowings

The Celtic language left very few traces in the English language, because the Germanic conquerors partly exterminated the local population, partly drove them away to the less fertile mountainous parts of the country, where they were not within reach of the invaders. The Celtic-speaking people who remained on the territory occupied by the Germanic tribes were slaves, and even those were not numerous. It is small wonder therefore that the number of Celtic loan words was limited. Among the few borrowed words we can mention:

Down (the downs of Dover), binn (bin – basket, crib, manger),

Some Celtic roots are preserved in geographical names, such as:

Kil (church – Kilbrook), ball (house – Ballantrae), esk (water – river Esk)

and some others.

2. Middle English

2.1. General characteristics

An analysis of the vocabulary in the Middle English period shows great instability and constant and rapid change. Many words became obsolete, and if preserved, then only in some dialects: many more appeared in the rapidly developing language to reflect the ever-changing life of the speakers and under the influence of contacts with other nations.

2.2. Means of enriching vocabulary in Middle English

2.2.1. Internal means of enriching vocabulary

Though the majority of Old English suffixes are still preserved in Middle English, they becoming less productive, and words formed by means of word-derivation in Old English can be treated as such only etymologically.

Words by means of word-composition in Old English, in Middle English are often understood as derived words.

2.2.2. External means of enriching vocabulary

The principal means of enriching vocabulary in Middle English are not internal, but external borrowings. Two languages in succession enriched the vocabulary English of that period – the Scandinavian language and the French language, the nature of the borrowings and their amount reflecting the conditions of the contacts between the English and these languages.

• Scandinavian borrowings

The Scandinavian invasion and the subsequent settlement of the Scandinavians on the territory of England, the constant contacts and intermixture of the English and Scandinavians brought about many changes in different spheres of the English language: word-stock, grammar and phonetics. The relative ease of the mutual penetration of the languages was conditioned by the circumstances of the Anglo-Scandinavians contacts.

Due to contacts between the Scandinavians and the English people many words were borrowed from the Scandinavian language, for example:

Nouns: law, fellow, sky, skirt, skill, egg, anger, awe, bloom, knife, root, bull, cake, husband, leg, wing, guest, loan, race

Adjectives: big, weak, wrong, ugly, twin

Verbs: call, cast, take, happen, scare, hail, want, bask, gape, kindle

Pronouns: they, them, their

The conditions and the consequences of various borrowings were different.

1. Sometimes the English language borrowed a word which it had no synonym. These words were simply added top the vocabulary. Examples: law, fellow

2. The English synonym was ousted by the borrowing. Scandinavian Taken (to take) and callen (to call) ousted the English synonyms niman and clypian, respectively.

3. Both the words, the English and the corresponding Scandinavian, are preserved, but they became different in meaning. Compare Modern English native words and Scandinavian borrowings:

Native Scandinavian borrowing

Heaven sky

Starve die

4. Sometimes a borrowed word and an English word are etymologically doublets, as words originating from the same source in Common Germanic.

Native Scandinavian borrowing

shirt skirt

shatter scatter

raise rear

5. Sometimes an English word and its Scandinavian doublet were the same in meaning but slightly different phonetically, and the phonetic form of the Scandinavian borrowing is preserved in English, having ousted the English counterpart. For example, modern English to give, to get come from the Scandinavian gefa, geta, this ousted the English giefan and gietan, respectively. Similar English words: gift, forget, guild, gate, again.

6. There may be a shift of meaning. Thus, the word dream originally meant “joy, pleasure”; under the influence of the related Scandinavian word it developed its modern meaning.

• French borrowings

It stands to reason that the Norman Conquest and the subsequent history left deep traces in the English language, mainly in the form of borrowings in words connected with such spheres of social and political activity where French-speaking Normans had occupied for a long time all places of importance. For example:

• Government and legislature:

government, noble, baron, prince, duke, court, justice, judge, crime, prison, condemn, sentence, parliament, etc.

• military life:

army, battle, peace, banner, victory, general, colonel, lieutenant, major, etc.

• religion:

religion, sermon, prey, saint, charity, etc.

• city crafts:

painter, tailor, carpenter, etc. (but country occupations remained English: shepherd, smith, etc.)

• pleasure and entertainment:

music, art, feast, pleasure, leisure, supper, dinner, pork, beef, mutton, etc. (but the corresponding names of domestic animals remained English: pig, cow, sheep)

• words of everyday life:

air, place, river, large, age, boil, branch, brush, catch, change, chain, chair, table, choice, cry, cost, etc.

• relationship:

aunt, uncle, nephew, cousin.

The place of the French borrowings within the English language was different:

1. A word may be borrowed from the French language to denote notions unknown to the English up to the time:

Government, parliament, general, colonel, etc.

2. The English synonym is ousted by the French borrowing:

English French

micel large

here army

ēa river

3. Both the words are preserved, but they are stylistically different:

English French

to begin to commence

to work to labour

to leave to abandon

life existence

look regard

ship vessel

As we see, the French borrowings are generally more literary or even bookish, the English word – a common one; but sometimes the English word is more literary. Compare:

Foe (native, English) – enemy (French borrowing)

4. Sometimes the English language borrowed many words with the same word-building affix. The meaning of the affix in this case became clear to the English-speaking people, and they began to add it to the English words, thus forming word-hybrids. For instance: the suffix –ment entered the language within such words as “government”, “parliament”, “agreement”, but later there appeared such English-French hybrids, such as fulfillment, amazement

The suffix –ance/-ence, which was an element of such borrowed words as “innocence”, “ignorance”, “repentance”, now also forms words-hybrids, such as hindrance

A similar thing: French borrowings “admirable”, “tolerable”, “reasonable”, but also:

Readable, eatable, unbearable.

5. One of the consequences of the borrowings from French was the appearance of the etymological doublets.

- from the Common Indoeuropean:

native borrowed

fatherly paternal

- from the Common Germanic:

native borrowed

yard garden

ward guard

choose choice

- from Latin:

Earlier later

(Old English borrowing) (Middle English borrowing)

Mint money

Inch ounce

6. Due to the great number of French borrowings these appeared in the English language such families of words, which though similar in their root meaning, are different in origin:

native borrowed

mouth oral

sun solar

see vision

7. There are calques on the French phrase:

It’s no doubt Se n’est doute

Without doubt Sans doubte

Out of doubt Hors de doute

3. New English

3.1. General Characteristics

The language in New English is growing very rapidly, the amount of actually existing words being impossible to estimate. Though some of the word existing in Old English and Middle English are no longer used in New English, the amount of new words exceeds the number of obsolete ones manifold.

Both internal means and external means are used for the purpose of enriching vocabulary, and the importance of either of them is hard to evaluate.

3.2. Means of enriching vocabulary in New English

3.2.1. Internal means of enriching vocabulary

The principal inner means in New English is the appearance of new words formed by means of conversion. Usually new words are formed by acquiring a new paradigm and function within the sentence. Thus, book (a noun) has the paradigm book – books. Book (a verb) has the paradigm book – books – booked – booking, etc. (the book is on the table – He booked a room)

Similarly:

Man (n) – man (v)

Stone (n) – stone (v) – stone (adj.)

(as in “a stone bench”), etc.

3.2.2. External means of enriching vocabulary

Very many new words appear in New English due to borrowing. It is necessary to say here that the process of borrowing, the sources of loan words, and the nature of the new words is different from Middle English and their appearance in the language cannot be understood unless sociolinguistic factors are taken into consideration.

Chronically speaking, New English borrowing may be subdivided into borrowings of the Early New English period – XV-XVII centuries, the period proceeding the establishment of the literary norm – in the XVIII-XX centuries, the period which is generally alluded to as Late New English.

• Early New English borrowings (XV – XVII centuries)

Borrowings into the English language in the XV – XVII centuries are primarily due to the political events and also to the cultural and trade relations between the English people and peoples in other countries. Thus, in the XV century – the epoch of Renaissance, there appeared in the English language many words borrowed from the Italian tongue:

Cameo, archipelago, dilettante, fresco, violin, balcony, gondola, grotto, volcano;

In the XVI century – Spanish and Portuguese words such as:

Armada, Negro, tornado, mosquito, renegade, matador

And also Latin (in the language of culture of that period), for instance:

• verbs, with the characteristic endings-iate, -ute ;

aggravate, abbreviate, exaggerate, frustrate, separate, irritate, contribute, constitute, persecute, execute, etc.

• adjectives ending in -ant, -end, - ior, -al:

arrogant, reluctant, evident, obedient, superior, inferior, senior, junior, dental, cordial, filial.

As a result of numerous Latin borrowings at the time there appeared many etymological doublets:

Latin

strictum

(direct ) strict strait (through French)

Siniorem

Senior sir

Factum

Fact feat

In the XVII century due to relations with the peoples of America such words were borrowed as:

Canoe, maize, potato, tomato, tobacco, mahogany, cannibal, hammock, squaw, moccasin, wigwam, etc.

French borrowings – after the Restoration:

Ball, ballet, billet, caprice, coquette, intrigue, fatigue, naïve.

• Late New English borrowings (XVIII – XX centuries)

• German: kindergarten, waltz, wagon, boy, girl

• French: magazine, machine, garage, police, engine, nacelle, aileron

• Indian: bungalow, jungle, indigo

• Chinese: coolie, tea

• Arabic: caravan, divan, alcohol, algebra, coffee, bazaar, orange, cotton, candy, chess

• Australian: kangaroo, boomerang, lubra

• Russian: borzoi, samovar, tsar, verst, taiga, sputnik, lunnik, glasnost, perestroika, etc.

In New English there also appeared words formed on the basis of Greek and Latin vocabulary. They are mainly scientific or technical terms, such as:

telephone, telegraph, teletype, telefax, microphone, sociology, politology, electricity, etc.

LECTURE 12

ETHYMOLOGICAL STRATA

IN MODERN ENGLISH

List of principal questions:

1. General characteristics

2. native element in Modern English

2.1. Common Indo-European stratum

2.2. Common Germanic stratum

3. Foreign element in Modern English (borrowings)

3.1. Latin element

3.2. Scandinavian element

3.3. French element

4. Word-hybrids

5. Etymological doublets

6. Sources of the new words in modern English

Literature

1. R.V. Reznik, T.C. Sorokina, I.V. Reznik A History of the English language. M., 2003.

2. T.A. Rastorguyeva History of English. M., 1983.

3. А.И. Смирницкий Лекции по истории английского языка. М., 2000.

4. К. Бруннер История английского языка. Т.1 М., 2001.

5. И. Чахоян, Л. Иванова, Т. Беляева. История английского языка. СПб., 1998.

6. А.И. Смирницкий Древнеанглийский язык. М., 1955.