Файл: Логистический подход к управлению запасами (Экономическая роль запасов в логистических системах).pdf

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

1.2 Методы и модели управления материальными запасами

Материальный поток – материальная продукция (грузы, детали, ТМЦ), рассматриваемая в процессе приложения к ней различных логистических операций и отнесенная к временному интервалу. Когда поток отнесен к моменту времени, он переходит в запас, форму движения материального потока при нулевой скорости его перемещения в пространстве. Они образуются в логистических системах (звеньях, цепях) вследствие несинхронности входного и выходного потоков или неравенства их интенсивностей. Управление запасами осуществляется путем воздействия на определенные параметры потоков и запасов в логистических системах. Выделяют 3 группы параметров:

• Параметры спроса (интенсивность потребления (расхода) за период, функция спроса (потребления) за период и др.)
• Параметры заказов и поставок (размер заказа, точка заказа, интервал поставки, размер партии поставки и др.)
• Параметры уровня запасов^[5].

Выходной поток (производственный спрос, спрос в торговле) является, как правило, заданным. Поэтому, строго говоря, объектом управления в теории запасов являются параметры входного потока (его интенсивность – размер заказа и интервал между поставками). Уровень запаса служит лишь в качестве контролируемого параметра.

Различают следующие уровни общего запаса:

1. Максимальный уровень = максимальный уровень текущего запаса + страховой и подготовительный запасы
2. Минимальный уровень = страховой и подготовительный запасы
3. Средний уровень = средний уровень текущего запаса + страховой и подготовительный запасы.

Регулировать уровень запаса можно 3 основными способами:

• Изменение размера заказа (партии поставки)
• Изменением периода заказа (интервал поставок)
• Одновременным изменением размера заказа и интервала между поставками^[6].

В зависимости от использования одного из этих подходов выделяют 3 принципиальные системы регулирования. Периодический метод (система регулирования с фиксированной периодичностью заказа). В рамках данного метода через равные промежутки времени производится контроль уровня запаса и формируется заказ. Несмотря на простоту периодичного метода, он имеет недостаток. Условием его использования является более или менее равномерное потребление запаса, или относительно постоянный период выполнения заказа.

Релаксационный метод (система регулирования запасов с фиксированным размером заказа). Сущность метода заключается в постоянном контроле за уровнем запаса и его краткосрочном прогнозировании с целью определения момента выдачи заказа. Достоинства системы: фиксированный размер партии поставки, адаптивность к изменениям внешней среды и внутренних параметров логистической системы.

Двухуровневая система регулирования запасов (система «минимум-максимум»). Более распространенной модификацией метода, применяемой за рубежом, является система с 2 фиксированными уровнями запасов без постоянной периодичности заказа и с его плавающим объемом.

Сущность стратегии заключается в определении 2 уровней запаса: максимально допустимого (S) и уровня, определяющего точку заказа (s). Главное достоинство системы – более высокая адаптивность к изменяющимся условиям.

Рассмотренные системы регулирования предполагают относительную неизменность условий протекания логистических процессов, не учитывают затраты на запасы, специфику конкретной производственно-коммерческой структуры. Они являются лишь частью системы управления запасами. Для ее организации необходимо задать нормативные параметры, которые могут быть определены путем экономико-математического моделирования логистических процессов^[7].

Разработка и внедрение систем управления состоит из последовательного ряда этапов:

1. Анализ номенклатуры запасаемых товарно-материальных ресурсов;
2. Выявление закономерностей движения запасов и прогнозирование его величины к моменту поступления очередной поставки;
3. Выбор стратегии пополнения запасов и привязка номенклатурных позиций по системам регулирования запасов;
4. Выбор типа математической модели, критерия оптимальности для каждой категории материальных запасов;
5. Интеграция систем регулирования запаса с моделями и критериями оптимизации его страховой и текущей частей;
6. Разработка организационной схемы управления и информационного обеспечения;
7. Координация с другими подсистемами логистического менеджмента;
8. Реализация моделей (определение оптимального размера заказа, нормирование страхового запаса) в рамках принятой стратегии управления;
9. Поддержка и пересмотр параметров и нормативов системы;
10. Оценка результатов и внедрение системы.

Большое значение имеет качественное выполнение первого этапа, для которого часто используется метод “ABC”. Сущность: группировка номенклатуры по суммарной стоимости материалов. Практика показывает, что в производственных и коммерческих системах на относительно небольшую группу товарно-материальных ресурсов (10-20%) приходится большая часть стоимости материальных запасов и оборота (70-80%). Анализ помогает повысить точность планирования, организации контроля и сократить логистические издержки. Данный метод может быть дополнен XYZ-анализом, который классифицирует ресурсы в зависимости от характера их потребления и точности прогнозирования изменения потребности в них на основании коэффициента вариации. Операция “наложения ” полученных классов друг на друга позволяет определиться с очередностью охвата номенклатурных позиций и с выбором типа системы регулирования и моделей управления запасами для оценки их параметров.