ВУЗ: Казахская Национальная Академия Искусств им. Т. Жургенова
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Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
communicate what something sounded like. In the same way, acoustical
memory is more evanescent than visual memory. It is far easier to visualise
what a London bus looks like than to recall the details of a musical perform-
ance. Similarly, it is difficult to ‘look more closely’; turning up the volume is
more like turning up the brightness of a TV picture; once an optimal level is
reached, any further increase becomes annoying, then painful.
It has been universally recognised for many years in experimental
psychology, particularly in experiments about perception, that people tend
to perceive what they want to perceive. This is often called the
experimenter expectancy effect; it is more subtle and insidious than it
sounds, and the history of science is littered with the wrecked careers of
those who failed to guard against it. Such self-deception has most often
occurred in fields like biology, where although the raw data may be
numerical, there is no real mathematical theory to check it against. When
the only ‘results’ are vague subjective impressions, the danger is clearly
much greater, no matter how absolute the integrity of the experimenter.
Thus in psychological work great care is necessary in the use of impartial
observers, double-blind techniques, and rigorous statistical tests for
significance. The vast majority of Subjectivist writings wholly ignore these
precautions, with predictable results. In a few cases properly controlled
listening tests have been done, and at the time of writing all have resulted
in different amplifiers sounding indistinguishable. I believe the conclusion
is inescapable that experimenter expectancy has played a dominant role in
the growth of subjectivism.
It is notable that in Subjectivist audio the ‘correct’ answer is always the
more expensive or inconvenient one. Electronics is rarely as simple as that.
A major improvement is more likely to be linked with a new circuit
topology or new type of semiconductor, than with mindlessly specifying
more expensive components of the same type; cars do not go faster with
platinum pistons.
It might be difficult to produce a rigorous statistical analysis, but it is my
view that the reported subjective quality of a piece of equipment correlates
far more with the price than with anything else. There is perhaps here an
echo of the Protestant Work Ethnic; you must suffer now to enjoy yourself
later. Another reason for the relatively effortless rise of subjectivism is the
me-too effect; many people are reluctant to admit that they cannot detect
acoustic subtleties as nobody wants to be labelled as insensitive,
outmoded, or just plain deaf. It is also virtually impossible to absolutely
disprove any claims, as the claimant can always retreat a fraction and say
that there was something special about the combination of hardware in use
during the disputed tests, or complain that the phenomena are too delicate
for brutal logic to be used on them. In any case, most competent engineers
with a taste for rationality probably have better things to do than dispute
every controversial report.
20
Introduction and general survey
Under these conditions, vague claims tend, by a kind of intellectual
inflation, to gradually become regarded as facts. Manufacturers have some
incentive to support the Subjectivist camp as they can claim that only they
understand a particular non-measurable effect, but this is no guarantee that
the dice may not fall badly in a subjective review.
The outlook
It seems unlikely that subjectivism will disappear for some time, given the
momentum that it has gained, the entrenched positions that some people
have taken up, and the sadly uncritical way in which people accept an
unsupported assertion as the truth simply because it is asserted with
frequency and conviction. In an ideal world every such statement would be
greeted by loud demands for evidence. However, the history of the world
sometimes leads one to suppose pessimistically that people will believe
anything. By analogy, one might suppose that subjectivism would persist
for the same reason that parapsychology has; there will always be people
who will believe what they want to believe rather than what the hard facts
indicate.
Technical errors
Misinformation also arises in the purely technical domain; I have also
found that some of the most enduring and widely held technical beliefs to
be unfounded. For example, if you take a Class-B amplifier and increase its
quiescent current so that it runs in Class-A at low levels, i.e. in Class AB,
most people will tell you that the distortion will be reduced as you have
moved nearer to the full Class-A condition. This is untrue. A correctly
configured amplifier gives more distortion in Class-AB, not less, because of
the abrupt gain changes inherent in switching from A to B every cycle.
Discoveries like this can only be made because it is now straightforward to
make testbed amplifiers with ultra-low distortion – lower than that which
used to be thought possible. The reduction of distortion to the basic or
inherent level that a circuit configuration is capable of is a fundamental
requirement for serious design work in this field; in Class-B at least this
gives a defined and repeatable standard of performance that in later
chapters I name a Blameless amplifier, so-called because it avoids error
rather than claiming new virtues.
It has proved possible to take the standard Class-B power amplifier
configuration, and by minor modifications, reduce the distortion to below
the noise floor at low frequencies. This represents approximately 0.0005 to
0.0008% THD, depending on the exact design of the circuitry, and the
actual distortion can be shown to be substantially below this if spectrum-
analysis techniques are used to separate the harmonics from the noise.
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Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
The performance requirements for amplifiers
This section is not a recapitulation of international standards, which are
intended to provide a minimum level of quality rather than extend the art.
It is rather my own view of what you should be worrying about at the start
of the design process, and the first items to consider are the brutally
pragmatic ones related to keeping you in business and out of prison.
Safety
In the drive to produce the finest amplifier ever made, do not forget that the
Prime Directive of audio design is – Thou Shalt Not Kill. Every other
consideration comes a poor second, not only for ethical reasons, but also
because one serious lawsuit will close down most audio companies
forever.
Reliability
If you are in the business of manufacturing, you had better make sure that
your equipment keeps working, so that you too can keep working. It has to
be admitted that power amplifiers – especially the more powerful ones –
have a reputation for reliability that is poor compared with most branches
of electronics. The ‘high end’ in particular has gathered to itself a bad
reputation for dependability
[21]
.
Power output
In commercial practice, this is decided for you by the marketing
department. Even if you can please yourself, the power output capability
needs careful thought as it has a powerful and non-linear effect on the
cost.
The last statement requires explanation. As the output power increases, a
point is reached when single output devices are incapable of sustaining the
thermal dissipation, parallel pairs are required, and the price jumps up.
Similarly, transformer laminations come in standard sizes, so the trans-
former size and cost will also increase in discrete steps.
Domestic hi-fi amplifiers usually range from 20 W to 150 W into 8 !,
though with a scattering of much higher powers. PA units will range from
50 W, for foldback purposes (i.e. the sound the musician actually hears, to
monitor his/her playing, as opposed to that thrown out forwards by the
main PA stacks; also called stage monitoring) to 1 kW or more. Amplifiers
of extreme high power are not popular, partly because the economies of
scale are small, but mainly because it means putting all your eggs in one
basket, and a failure becomes disastrous. This is accentuated by the
statistically unproven but almost universally-held opinion that high-power
solid-state amplifiers are inherently less reliable than others.
22
Introduction and general survey
If an amplifier gives a certain output into 8 !, it will not give exactly twice
as much into 4 ! loads; in fact it will probably be much less than this, due
to the increased resistive losses in 4 ! operation, and the way that power
alters as the square of voltage. Typically, an amplifier giving 180 W into 8 !
might be expected to yield 260 W into 4 ! and 350 W into 2 !, if it can
drive so low a load at all. These figures are approximate, depending very
much on power supply design.
Nominally 8 ! loudspeakers are the most common in hi-fi applications.
The nominal title accommodates the fact that all loudspeakers, especially
multi-element types, have marked changes in input impedance with
frequency, and are only resistive at a few spot frequencies. Nominal 8 !
loudspeakers may be expected to drop to at least 6 ! in some part of the
audio spectrum. To allow for this, almost all amplifiers are rated as capable
of 4 ! as well as 8 ! loads. This takes care of almost any nominal 8 !
speaker, but leaves no safety margin for nominal 4 ! designs, which are
likely to dip to 3 ! or less. Extending amplifier capability to deal with lower
load impedances for anything other than very short periods has serious cost
implications for the power-supply transformer and heatsinking; these
already represent the bulk of the cost.
The most important thing to remember in specifying output power is that
you have to increase it by an awful lot to make the amplifier significantly
louder. We do not perceive acoustic power as such – there is no way we
could possibly integrate the energy liberated in a room, and it would be a
singularly useless thing to perceive if we could. It is much nearer the truth
to say that we perceive pressure. It is well known that power in watts must
be quadrupled to double sound pressure level (SPL) but this is not the same
as doubling subjective loudness; this is measured in Sones rather than dB
above threshold, and some psychoacousticians have reported that doub-
ling subjective loudness requires a 10 dB rather than 6 dB rise in SPL,
implying that amplifier power must be increased tenfold, rather than
merely quadrupled
[22]
. It is any rate clear that changing from a 25 W to a
30 W amplifier will not give an audible increase in level.
This does not mean that fractions of a watt are never of interest. They can
matter either in pursuit of maximum efficiency for its own sake, or because
a design is only just capable of meeting its output specification.
Some hi-fi reviewers set great value on very high peak current capability for
short periods. While it is possible to think up special test waveforms that
demand unusually large peak currents, any evidence that this effect is
important in use is so far lacking.
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Frequency response
This can be dealt with crisply; the minimum is 20 Hz to 20 kHz, +/–0.5 dB,
though there should never be any plus about it when solid-state amplifiers
Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
are concerned. Any hint of a peak before the roll-off should be looked at
with extreme suspicion, as it probably means doubtful HF stability. This is
less true of valve amplifiers, where the bandwidth limits of the output
transformer mean that even modest NFB factors tend to cause peaking at
both high and low ends of the spectrum.
Having dealt with the issue crisply, there is no hope that everyone will
agree that this is adequate. CDs do not have the built-in LF limitations of
vinyl and could presumably encode the barometric pressure in the
recording studio if this was felt to be desirable, and so an extension to
–0.5 dB at 5 or 10 Hz is perfectly feasible. However, if infrabass information
does exist down at these frequencies, no domestic loudspeaker will
reproduce them.
Noise
There should be as little as possible without compromising other
parameters. The noise performance of a power amplifier is not an
irrelevance
[23]
, especially in a domestic setting.
Distortion
Once more, a sensible target might be: As little as possible without messing
up something else. This ignores the views of those who feel a power
amplifier is an appropriate device for adding distortion to a musical
performance. Such views are not considered in the body of this book; it is,
after all, not a treatise on fuzz-boxes or other guitar effects.
I hope that the techniques explained in this book have a relevance beyond
power amplifiers. Applications obviously include discrete-op-amp based
pre-amplifiers
[24]
, and extend to any amplifier aiming at static or dynamic
precision.
My philosophy is the simple one that distortion is bad, and high-order
distortion is worse. The first part of this statement, is, I suggest, beyond
argument, and the second part has a good deal of evidence to back it. The
distortion of the nth harmonic should be weighted by n
2
/4 worse,
according to many authorities
[25]
. This leaves the second harmonic
unchanged, but scales up the third by 9/4, i.e. 2.25 times, the fourth by
16/4, i.e. 4 times, and so on. It is clear that even small amounts of high-
order harmonics could be unpleasant, and this is one reason why even
modest crossover distortion is of such concern.
Digital audio now routinely delivers the signal with less than 0.002% THD,
and I can earnestly vouch for the fact that analogue console designers work
furiously to keep the distortion in long complex signal paths down to
similar levels. I think it an insult to allow the very last piece of electronics
in the chain to make nonsense of these efforts.
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