ВУЗ: Казахская Национальная Академия Искусств им. Т. Жургенова
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Introduction and general survey
I would like to make it clear that I do not believe that an amplifier yielding
0.001% THD is going to sound much better than its fellow giving 0.002%.
However, if there is ever a scintilla of doubt as to what level of distortion is
perceptible, then using the techniques I have presented it should be
possible to routinely reduce the THD below the level at which there can be
any rational argument.
I am painfully aware that there is a school of thought that regards low THD
as inherently immoral, but this is to confuse electronics with religion. The
implication is that very low THD can only be obtained by huge global NFB
factors that require heavy dominant-pole compensation that severely
degrades slew-rate; the obvious flaw in this argument is that once the
compensation is applied the amplifier no longer has a large global NFB
factor, and so its distortion performance presumably reverts to mediocrity,
further burdened with a slew-rate of four volts per fortnight.
To me low distortion has its own aesthetic and philosophical appeal; it is
satisfying to know that the amplifier you have just designed and built is so
linear that there simply is no realistic possibility of it distorting your
favourite material. Most of the linearity-enhancing strategies examined in
this book are of minimal cost (the notable exception being resort to Class-A)
compared with the essential heatsinks, transformer, etc. and so why not
have ultra-low distortion? Why put up with more than you must?
Damping factor
Audio amplifiers, with a few very special exceptions
[26]
, approximate to
perfect voltage sources; i.e., they aspire to a zero output impedance across
the audio band. The result is that amplifier output is unaffected by loading,
so that the frequency-variable impedance of loudspeakers does not give an
equally variable frequency response, and there is some control of speaker
cone resonances.
While an actual zero impedance is impossible, a very close approximation
is possible if large negative-feedback factors are used. (Actually, a judicious
mixture of voltage and current feedback will make the output impedance
zero, or even negative – i.e., increasing the loading makes the output
voltage increase. This is clever, but usually pointless, as will be seen.) Solid-
state amplifiers are quite happy with lots of feedback, but it is usually
impractical in valve designs.
Damping factor is defined as the ratio of the load impedance Rload to the
amplifier output resistance Rs:
Damping factor =
Rload
Rout
Equation 1.1
A solid-state amplifier typically has output resistance of the order of 0.05 !,
so if it drives an 8 ! speaker we get a damping factor of 160 times. This
25
Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
simple definition ignores the fact that amplifier output impedance usually
varies considerably across the audio band, increasing with frequency as the
negative feedback factor falls; this indicates that the output resistance is
actually more like an inductive reactance. The presence of an output
inductor to give stability with capacitative loads further complicates the
issue.
Mercifully, damping factor as such has very little effect on loudspeaker
performance. A damping factor of 160 times, as derived above, seems to
imply a truly radical effect on cone response – it implies that resonances
and such have been reduced by 160 times as the amplifier output takes an
iron grip on the cone movement. Nothing could be further from the
truth.
The resonance of a loudspeaker unit depends on the total resistance in the
circuit. Ignoring the complexities of crossover circuitry in multi-element
speakers, the total series resistance is the sum of the speaker coil resistance,
the speaker cabling, and, last of all, the amplifier output impedance. The
values will be typically 7 !, 0.5 ! and 0.05 !, so the amplifier only
contributes 0.67% to the total, and its contribution to speaker dynamics
must be negligible.
The highest output impedances are usually found in valve equipment,
where global feedback including the output transformer is low or non-
existent; values around 0.5 ! are usual. However, idiosyncratic semi-
conductor designs sometimes also have high output resistances; see
Olsher
[27]
for a design with Rout = 0.6 !, which I feel is far too high.
This view of the matter was practically investigated and fully confirmed by
James Moir as far back as 1950
[28]
, though this has not prevented periodic
resurgences of controversy.
The only reason to strive for a high damping factor – which can, after all,
do no harm – is the usual numbers game of impressing potential customers
with spec. figures. It is as certain as anything can be that the subjective
difference between two amplifiers, one with a DF of 100, and the other
boasting 2000, is undetectable by human perception. Nonetheless, the
specifications look very different in the brochure, so means of maximising
the DF may be of some interest. This is examined further in Chapter 7.
Absolute phase
Concern for absolute phase has for a long time hovered ambiguously
between real audio concerns like noise and distortion, and the Subjective
realm where solid copper is allegedly audible. Absolute phase means the
preservation of signal phase all the way from microphone to loudspeaker,
so that a drum impact that sends an initial wave of positive pressure
towards the live audience is reproduced as a similar positive pressure wave
26
Introduction and general survey
from the loudspeaker. Since it is known that the neural impulses from the
ear retain the periodicity of the waveform at low frequencies, and
distinguish between compression and rarefaction, there is a prima facie
case for the audibility of absolute phase.
It is unclear how this applies to instruments less physical than a kickdrum.
For the drum the situation is simple – you kick it, the diaphragm moves
outwards and the start of the transient must be a wave of compression in the
air. (Followed almost at once by a wave of rarefaction.) But what about an
electric guitar? A similar line of reasoning – plucking the string moves it in
a given direction, which gives such-and-such a signal polarity, which leads
to whatever movement of the cone in the guitar amp speaker cabinet –
breaks down at every point in the chain. There is no way to know how the
pickups are wound, and indeed the guitar will almost certainly have a
switch for reversing the phase of one of them. I also suggest that the
preservation of absolute phase is not the prime concern of those who
design and build guitar amplifiers.
The situation is even less clear if more than one instrument is concerned,
which is of course almost all the time. It is very difficult to see how two
electric guitars played together could have a correct phase in which to
listen to them.
Recent work on the audibility of absolute phase
[29],[30]
shows it is
sometimes detectable. A single tone flipped back and forth in phase,
providing it has a spiky asymmetrical waveform and an associated harsh
sound, will show a change in perceived timbre and, according to some
experimenters, a perceived change in pitch. A monaural presentation has to
be used to yield a clear effect. A complex sound, however, such as that
produced by a musical ensemble, does not in general show a detectable
difference.
Proposed standards for the maintenance of absolute phase have just begun
to appear
[31]
, and the implication for amplifier designers is clear; whether
absolute phase really matters or not, it is simple to maintain phase in a
power amplifier (compare a complex mixing console, where correct phase
is vital, and there are hundreds of inputs and outputs, all of which must be
in phase in every possible configuration of every control) and so it should
be done. In fact, it probably already has been done, even if the designer
hasn’t given absolute phase a thought, because almost all amplifiers use
series negative feedback, and this must be non-inverting. Care is however
required if there are stages such as balanced line input amplifiers before the
power amplifier itself.
Acronyms
I have kept the number of acronyms used to a minimum. However, those
few are used extensively, so a list is given in case they are not all blindingly
obvious:
27
Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
BJT
Bipolar junction transistor
CFP
Complementary feedback pair
C/L
Closed-loop
CM
Common-mode
EF
Emitter-follower
EIN
Equivalent input noise
FET
Field-effect transistor
HF
Amplifier behaviour above the dominant pole frequency,
where the open-loop gain is usually falling at 6 dB/octave
I/P
Input
LF
Relating to amplifier action below the dominant pole, where
the open-loop gain is assumed to be essentially flat with
frequency
NFB
Negative feedback
O/L
Open loop
P1
The first o/l response pole, and its frequency in Hz (i.e. the
–3 dB point of a 6 dB/oct rolloff)
P2
The second response pole, at a higher frequency
PSRR
Power supply rejection ratio
THD
Total harmonic distortion
VAS
Voltage-amplifier stage
References
1. Martin Gardner Fads & Fallacies in the Name of Science Ch. 12,
pp. 140–151. Pub. Dover.
2. David F Mark Investigating the Paranormal Nature, Vol. 320, 13 March
1986.
3. Randi, J Flim-Flam! Psychics, ESP Unicorns and Other Delusions
Prometheus Books, 1982. pp. 196–198.
4. Harris, J D Loudness discrimination J. Speech Hear. Dis. Monogr.
Suppl. 11, pp. 1–63.
5. Moore, B C J Relation between the critical bandwidth k the frequency-
difference limen Journ. Acoust. Soc. Am. 55, p. 359.
6. Moir, J Just Detectable Distortion Levels Wireless World, February
1981, pp. 32–34.
7. Hawksford, M The Essex Echo Hi-fi News & RR, May 1986, p. 53.
8. Self, D Ultra-Low-Noise Amplifiers & Granularity Distortion Journ.
Audio Eng. Soc., November 1987, pp. 907–915.
9. Harwood & Shorter Stereophony and The effect of crosstalk between
left and right channels BBC Engineering Monograph No 52.
10. Lipshitz et al, On the audibility of midrange phase distortion in audio
systems JAES, September 1982, pp. 580–595.
11. Harwood, H Audibility of phase effects in loudspeakers Wireless
World, January 1976, pp. 30–32.
12. Shinners, S Modern control system theory and application publ.
Addison-Wesley, p. 310.
28
Introduction and general survey
13. King, G Hi-fi reviewing Hi-fi News & RR, May 1978, p. 77.
14. Harley, R Review of Cary CAD-300SEI Single-Ended Triode Amplifier
Stereophile Sept 1995, p. 141.
15. Baxandall, P Audio power amplifier design Wireless World, January
1978, p. 56.
16. Belcher, R A A new distortion measurement Wireless World, May
1978, pp. 36–41.
17. Baxandall, P Audible amplifier distortion is not a mystery Wireless
World, November 1977, pp. 63–66.
18. Hafler, D A Listening Test for Amplifier Distortion Hi-fi News & RR,
November 1986, pp. 25–29.
19. Colloms, M Hafler XL-280 Test Hi-Fi News & RR, June 1987, pp. 65–
67.
20. Hi-fi Choice; The Selection Pub. Sportscene, 1986.
21. Lawry, R H High End Difficulties Stereophile, May 1995, p. 23.
22. Moore, B J An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing Academic
Press, 1982, pp. 48–50.
23. Fielder, L Dynamic range issues in the Modern Digital Audio
Environment Journ. Audio Eng. Soc. Vol 43.
24. Self, D Advanced Preamplifier Design Wireless World, Nov 1976,
p. 41.
25. Moir, J Just Detectable Distortion Levels Wireless World, Feb 1981,
p. 34.
26. Mills & Hawksford Transconductance Power Amplifier Systems for
Current-Driven Loudspeakers Journ. Audio Eng. Soc. Vol 37.
27. Olsher, D Times One RFS400 Power Amplifier Review Stereophile,
Aug 1995, p. 187.
28. Moir, J Transients and Loudspeaker Damping Wireless World, May
1950, p. 166.
29. Greiner & Melton A Quest for the Audibility of Polarity Audio, Dec
1993, p. 40.
30. Greiner & Melton Observations on the Audibility of Acoustic Polarity
Journ. Audio Eng. Soc. Vol 42.
31. AES Draft AES recommended practice Standard for professional audio
– Conservation of the Polarity of Audio Signals Inserted in: Journ.
Audio Eng. Soc. Vol 42.
29