ВУЗ: Казахская Национальная Академия Искусств им. Т. Жургенова
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Amplifier and loudspeaker protection
circuitry, such as relay timing, the problem is not serious as the same high-
voltage small-signal transistors can be used as in the amplifier small-signal
sections, and the power dissipation in collector loads, etc. can be controlled
simply by making them higher in value. The biggest problem is the relay
energising current; many relay types are not available with coil voltages
higher than 24 V, and this is not easy to power from a 50 V HT rail without
wasting power in a big dropper resistor. This causes unwanted heating of the
amplifier internals, and provides a place for service engineers to burn
themselves.
One solution in a stereo amplifier is to run the two relays in series; the snag
(and for sound reinforcement work it may be a serious one) is that both relays
must switch together, so if one channel fails with a DC offset, both are muted.
In live work independent relay control is much to be preferred, even though
most of the relay control circuitry must be duplicated for each channel.
If the control circuitry is powered from the main HT rails, then its power
should be taken off before the amplifier HT fuses. The control circuitry
should then be able to mute the relays when appropriate, no matter what
faults have occurred in the amplifiers themselves.
If there is additional signal circuitry in the complete amplifier it is not
advisable to power it in this way, especially if it has high gain, e.g. a
microphone preamplifier. When such signal circuits are powered in this way,
it is usually by +/–15 V regulators from the HT rails, with series dropper
resistors to spread out some of the dissipation. However, bass transients in
the power amplifiers can pull down the HT rails alarmingly, and if the
regulators drop out large disturbances will appear on the nominally
regulated low-voltage rails, leading to very low frequency oscillations which
will be extremely destructive to loudspeakers. In this case the use of wholly
separate clean rails run from an extra transformer winding is strongly
recommended. There will be no significant coupling through the use of a
single transformer.
References
1. Bailey, A Output Transistor Protection in AF Amplifiers Wireless World,
June 1968, p. 154.
2. Becker, R High-Power Audio Amplifier Design Wireless World, Feb.
1972, p. 79.
3. Motorola High Power Audio Amplifiers With Sort Circuit Protection
Motorola Application Note AN-485 (1972).
4. Otala, M Peak Current Requirement of Commerical Loudspeaker Systems
Journ. Audio Eng. Soc. Vol. 35, June 1987, p. 455.
5. Baxandall, P Technique for Displaying Current and Voltage Capability of
Amplifiers Journ. Audio Eng. Soc. Vol. 36, Jan./Feb. 1988, p. 3.
6. Greiner, R Amplifier-Loudspeaker Interfacing Journ. Audio Eng. Soc.
Loudspeakers pp. 241–250.
395
14
Grounding and practical
matters
Audio amplifier PCB design
This section addresses the special PCB design problems presented by
power amplifiers, particularly those operating in Class-B. All power
amplifier systems contain the power-amp stages themselves, and usually
associated control and protection circuitry; most also contain small-signal
audio sections such as balanced input amplifiers, subsonic filters, output
meters, and so on.
Other topics that are related to PCB design, such as grounding, safety,
reliability, etc. are also dealt with.
The performance of an audio power amplifier depends on many factors,
but in all cases the detailed design of the PCB is critical, because of the risk
of inductive distortion due to crosstalk between the supply-rails and the
signal circuitry; this can very easily be the ultimate limitation on amplifier
linearity, and it is hard to over-emphasise its importance. The PCB design
will to a great extent define both the distortion and crosstalk performance
of the amplifier.
Apart from these performance considerations, the PCB design can have
considerable influence on ease of manufacture, ease of testing and repair,
and reliability. All of these issues are addressed below.
Successful audio PCB layout requires enough electronic knowledge to fully
appreciate the points set out below, so that layout can proceed smoothly
and effectively. It is common in many electronic fields for PCB design to be
handed over to draughtspersons, who, while very skilled in the use of CAD,
have little or no understanding of the details of circuit operation. In some
fields this works fine; in power amplifier design it won’t, because basic
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Grounding and practical matters
parameters such as crosstalk and distortion are so strongly layout-
dependent. At the very least the PCB designer should understand the points
set out below.
Crosstalk
All crosstalk has a transmitting end (which can be at any impedance) and
a receiving end, usually either at high impedance or virtual-earth. Either
way, it is sensitive to the injection of small currents. When interchannel
crosstalk is being discussed, the transmitting and receiving channels are
usually called the speaking and non-speaking channels respectively.
Crosstalk comes in various forms:
!
Capacitative crosstalk is due to the physical proximity of different
circuits, and may be represented by a small notional capacitor joining
the two circuits. It usually increases at the rate of 6 dB/octave, though
higher dB/octave rates are possible. Screening with any conductive
material is a complete cure, but physical distance is usually cheaper.
!
Resistive crosstalk usually occurs simply because ground tracks have a
non-zero resistance. Copper is not a room-temperature superconductor.
Resistive crosstalk is constant with frequency.
!
Inductive crosstalk is rarely a problem in general audio design; it might
occur if you have to mount two uncanned audio transformers close
together, but otherwise you can usually forget it. The notable exception
to this rule is . . . the Class-B audio power amplifier, where the rail
currents are halfwave sines that seriously degrade the distortion
performance if they are allowed to couple into the input, feedback or
output circuitry.
In most line-level audio circuitry the primary cause of crosstalk is unwanted
capacitative coupling between different parts of a circuit, and in most cases
this is defined solely by the PCB layout. Class-B power amplifiers, in
contrast, should suffer very low or negligible levels of crosstalk from
capacitative effects, as the circuit impedances tend to be low, and the
physical separation large; a much greater problem is inductive coupling
between the supply-rail currents and the signal circuitry. If coupling occurs
to the same channel it manifests itself as distortion, and can dominate
amplifier non-linearity. If it occurs to the other (non-speaking) channel it
will appear as crosstalk of a distorted signal. In either case it is thoroughly
undesirable, and precautions must be taken to prevent it.
The PCB layout is only one component of this, as crosstalk must be both
emitted and received. In general the emission is greatest from internal
wiring, due to its length and extent; wiring layout will probably be critical
for best performance, and needs to be fixed by cable ties, etc. The receiving
end is probably the input and feedback circuitry of the amplifier, which will
be fixed on the PCB. Designing these sections for maximum immunity is
critical to good performance.
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Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
Rail induction distortion
The supply-rails of a Class-B power-amp carry large and very distorted
currents. As previously outlined, if these are allowed to crosstalk into the
audio path by induction the distortion performance will be severely
degraded. This applies to PCB conductors just as much as cabling, and it is
sadly true that it is easy to produce an amplifier PCB that is absolutely
satisfactory in every respect but this one, and the only solution is another
board iteration. The effect can be completely prevented but in the present
state of knowledge I cannot give detailed guidelines to suit every
constructional topology. The best approach is:
Minimise radiation from the supply rails by running the V+ and V– rails as
close together as possible. Keep them away from the input stages of the
amplifier, and the output connections; the best method is to bring the rails
up to the output stage from one side, with the rest of the amplifier on the
other side. Then run tracks from the output to power the rest of the amp;
these carry no halfwave currents and should cause no problems.
Minimise pickup of rail radiation by keeping the area of the input and
feedback circuits to a minimum. These form loops with the audio ground
and these loops must be as small in area as possible. This can often best be
done by straddling the feedback and input networks across the audio
ground track, which is taken across the centre of the PCB from input ground
to output ground.
Induction of distortion can also occur into the output and output-ground
cabling, and even the output inductor. The latter presents a problem as it is
usually difficult to change its orientation without a PCB update.
The mounting of output devices
The most important decision is whether or not to mount the power output
devices directly on the main amplifier PCB. There are strong arguments for
doing so, but it is not always the best choice.
Advantages:
!
The amplifier PCB can be constructed so as to form a complete
operational unit that can be thoroughly tested before being fixed into the
chassis. This makes testing much easier, as there is access from all sides;
it also minimises the possibility of cosmetic damage (scratches, etc.) to
the metalwork during testing.
!
It is impossible to connect the power devices wrongly, providing you get
the right devices in the right positions. This is important for such errors
usually destroy both output devices and cause other domino-effect faults
that are very time-consuming to correct.
!
The output device connections can be very short. This seems to help
stability of the output stage against HF parasitic oscillations.
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Grounding and practical matters
Disadvantages:
!
If the output devices require frequent changing (which obviously
indicates something very wrong somewhere) then repeated resoldering
will damage the PCB tracks. However, if the worst happens the damaged
track can usually be bridged out with short sections of wire, so the PCB
need not be scrapped; make sure this is possible.
!
The output devices will probably get fairly hot, even if run well within
their ratings; a case temperature of 90°C is not unusual for a TO3 device.
If the mounting method does not have a degree of resilience, then
thermal expansion may set up stresses that push the pads off the PCB.
!
The heatsink will be heavy, and so there must be a solid structural fixing
between this and the PCB. Otherwise the assembly will flex when
handled, putting stress on soldered connections.
Single and double-sided PCBs
Single-sided PCBs are the usual choice for power amplifiers, because of
their lower cost; however the price differential between single and double-
sided plated-through-hole (PTH) is much less than it used to be. It is not
usually necessary to go double-sided for reason of space or convoluted
connectivity, because power amplifier components tend to be physically
large, determining the PCB size, and in typical circuitry there are a large
number of discrete resistors, etc. that can be used for jumping tracks.
Bear in mind that single-sided boards need thicker tracks to ensure
adhesion in case desoldering is necessary. Adding one or more ears to pads
with only one track leading to them gives much better adhesion, and is
highly recommended for pads that may need resoldering during main-
tenance; unfortunately it is a very tedious task with most CAD systems.
The advantages of double-sided PTH for power amplifiers are as follows:
!
No links are required.
!
Double-sided PCBs may allow one side to be used primarily as a ground
plane, minimising crosstalk and EMC problems.
!
Much better pad adhesion on resoldering as the pads are retained by the
through-hole plating.
!
There is more total room for tracks, and so they can be wider, giving less
volt-drop and PCB heating.
!
The extra cost is small.
Power supply PCB layout
Power supply subsystems have special requirements due to the very high
capacitor-charging currents involved:
!
Tracks carrying the full supply-rail current must have generous widths.
The board material used should have not less than 2-oz copper. 4-oz
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