Файл: Учебное пособие 2 по английскому языку Для студентов лечебного и педиатрического факультета (2 семестр) 2020 год.doc

one.

b). 1. The contraction of the diaphragm muscle causes a pressure changing, which is equal to the one caused by elastic components of the respiratory system. 2. The mechanism of breathing at altitude is mainly identical to that of breathing at sea level but with some differences. 3. Water molecules, including those on the alveolar walls, are more attracted to each other than to air. 4. All pressures in the respiratory system are relative to atmospheric one. 5. Due to certain characteristics of the lungs, the values of intra-pleural pressure are always lower than those of the intra-alveolar pressure. 6. Breathing is dependent upon the contraction and relaxation of muscle fibers of the diaphragm and those of the thorax.
VII. Read the sentences and use one (ones) or that (those) instead of some nouns.

1. Respiration has a primary function and the secondary functions. 2. Muscles use two mechanisms for getting energy: aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration. 3. Patients in 1 Group had some difficulties with respiration in comparison with the patients in the control group. 4. Anaerobic respiration is much less efficient than aerobic respiration. 5. All of these changes mean that an older person might have more difficulty coping with increased stress on their respiratory system, such as with an infection like pneumonia, than a younger person would. 6. The tract can be divided into an upper respiratory tract and a lower respiratory tract. 7. The nasal cavity is subdivided into a left canal and a right canal by a bony wall, the nasal septum.
VIII. Read and define the sentences with one (ones), that (those) as noun substitutes

1. 
   Hemoglobin is the component of the blood that transports O₂.
   
2. 
   In humans the lung expansion is achieved through the contraction of the diaphragm, but also by that of the intercostal muscles.
   
3. 
   One can increase or decrease breathing rate voluntarily but that involves a different part of the brain.
   
4. 
   The part of the total pressure generated by oxygen is the 'partial pressure' of O2, while that generated by carbon dioxide is the 'partial pressure' of CO2.
   
5. 
   Air moves from an area of higher pressure (the air) to that of lower pressure (our lungs and alveoli).
   
6. 
   When one breathes air in at sea level, the inhalation is composed of different gases.
   
7. 
   The pharynx is a tube that connects our nasal and oral cavities to the larynx.
   
8. 
   One of its functions is similar to the larynx and nasal cavity, by way of protection from dust and other particles.
   
9. 
   Those chemical reactions also use the hydrogen ions.
   

IX. Read and translate the sentences paying attention to Past Participle and Passive Voice:

1. This exchange is a result of increased concentration of O₂, and a decrease of CO_2, and is done through the process of diffusion. 2. Oxygen is carried in blood bound to hemoglobin and dissolved in the plasma. 3. Breathing is controlled by the central nervous system. 4. They are responsible for the nerve impulses, which are transmitted via the phrenic and other motor nerves to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. 5. Central chemoreceptors also located in the brainstem are specialized cells signaling the body to adjust ventilation based indirectly on arterial CO₂ levels. 6. Two muscle groups are used during normal inspiration. 7. Respiratory volume is the term used for various volumes of air moved by or associated with the lungs at a given point in the respiratory cycle. 8. This is the extra volume that can be brought into the lungs during a forced inspiration. 9. A breathing gas is a mixture of gaseous chemical elements and compounds used for respiration. 10. In animals with lungs, physiological respiration involves respiratory cycles of inhaled and exhaled breaths. 11. During exhalation (breathing out), at rest, all the muscles of inhalation relax, returning the chest and abdomen to a position called the “resting position”, which is determined by their anatomical elasticity.
Reading
X. Read and translate the text

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Respiration

Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary defines respiration as the “interchange of gases between an organism and the medium in which it lives”. We can classify respiration by external and internal processes. The external process of respiration involves the transfer of oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) occurring in the lungs between the atmosphere and the pulmonary circulation. The internal process of respiration is the similar one that occurs at the cellular level.

The main function of the respiration is gas exchange. The gas exchange consists of obtaining O₂ from the atmosphere and removing CO₂ from the blood. It is facilitated through a highly branched system of tubes or airways which lead from the nose to the alveoli. This exchange is a result of increased concentration of O₂, and a decrease of CO_2, and is done through the process of diffusion. Diffusion involves the movement of a substance in a solution (liquid or air) from higher concentration areas to lower concentration ones. In the case of respiration, diffusion involves the distribution of O₂ from the atmosphere through the pulmonary capillary walls and into the bloodstream. At the same time, CO₂ diffuses from the bloodstream into the alveoli.

Physiological respiration involves respiratory cycles of inhalation (inspiration, breathing in), usually an active movement and exhalation (expiration, breathing out), usually a passive process. Through this process of inhalation and exhalation, the average human cycles 5 to 10 liters of air through the lungs each minute. The respiratory rate is the total number of breaths, or respiratory cycles, that occur each minute. A child under 1 year of age has a normal respiratory rate between 30 and 60 breaths per minute. By adolescence, the normal respiratory rate is similar to that of adults, 12 to 18 breaths per minute.

Breathing is normally an unconscious, involuntary process and is controlled by the central nervous system.

Pulmonary ventilation is the act of breathing, which can be described as the exchange of air between the external environment and the alveoli. The difference in pressures drives pulmonary ventilation because air flows down a pressure gradient, that is, air flows from an area of higher pressure to that of lower pressure.

Pulmonary ventilation comprises two major steps: inspiration and expiration, in general, two muscle groups are used: the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles. When the diaphragm contracts it moves inferiorly toward the abdominal cavity, creating a larger thoracic cavity and more space for the lungs. Contraction of the external intercostal muscles moves the ribs upward and outward, causing the rib cage to expand, which increases the volume of the thoracic cavity. Due to the adhesive force of the pleural fluid, the expansion of the thoracic cavity forces the lungs to stretch and expand as well.. As a result, a pressure gradient is created that drives air into the lungs. During exhalation the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax and the lungs recoil. Since exhalation is a passive process, it typically takes twice as long as that of inhalation.

Terms “respiratory volume” and “respiratory capacity” are the characteristics of pulmonaryventilation and are closely connected with each other.There are four major types of respiratory volumes:

1. 
   Tidal volume(TV) is the amount of air that normally enters the lungs during quiet breathing, which is about 500 milliliters.
   
2. 
   Expiratory reserve volume(ERV) is the amount of air you can forcefully exhale past a normal tidal expiration.
   
3. 
   Inspiratory reserve volume(IRV) is produced by a deep inhalation, past a tidal inspiration. This is the extra volume that can be brought into the lungs during a forced inspiration.
   
4. 
   Residual volume(RV) is the air left in the lungs if you exhale as much air as possible. The residual volume makes breathing easier by preventing the alveoli from collapsing.
   

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Primary function of the respiration is to obtain O₂ for use by body's cells and eliminate CO₂ that cells produce. Secondary functions are providing a mechanism for speech, laughter and similar expressions of the emotions, and being used for reflexes such as yawning, coughing, and sneezing.

XI. Choose the correct answer for the question:

1. 
   What is respiration?
   

• 
  the interchange of gases between an organism and the organism in an emergency situation
  
• 
  the interchange of gases between an organism and the medium in which it lives
  
• 
  the interchange of substances between an organism and the medium in which it lives
  

2. 
   What is the main function of the respiration?
   

• 
  oxygen exchange
  
• 
  carbon dioxide exchange
  
• 
  gas exchange
  

3. 
   What process is responsible for the gas exchange?
   

• 
  oxygenation
  
• 
  diffusion
  
• 
  perfusion
  

4. 
   What is diffusion?
   

• 
  the movement of a substance in a solution (liquid or air) from lower concentration areas to higher concentration areas
  
• 
  the movement of a substance in a solution (liquid or air) from higher concentration areas to lower concentration areas
  
• 
  the movement of a substance in a solution (liquid or air) from lower concentration areas to lower concentration areas
  

5. 
   What is inhalation?
   

• 
  the action of breathing in
  
• 
  the action of breathing out
  
• 
  apnea
  

6. 
   What is exhalation?
   

• 
  the action of breathing in
  
• 
  the action of breathing out
  
• 
  breathing in and out
  

7. 
   What is the respiratory rate?
   

• 
  the partial number of breaths, or respiratory cycles, that occur each minute
  
• 
  the total number of breaths, or respiratory cycles, that occur each hour
  
• 
  the total number of breaths, or respiratory cycles, that occur each minute
  

8. 
   What is pulmonary ventilation?
   

• 
  the act of breathing described as the exchange of air between the internal environment and the alveoli
  
• 
  the act of breathing described as the exchange of air between the external environment and the cells
  
• 
  the act of breathing described as the exchange of air between the external environment and the alveoli
  

9. 
   What major steps does the pulmonary ventilation comprise?
   

• 
  inspiration and inhalation
  
• 
  exhalation and expiration
  
• 
  inspiration and expiration
  

10. 
    What muscle groups are used during normal inspiration?
    

• 
  diaphragm and internal lateral muscles
  
• 
  diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
  
• 
  diaphragm and triceps
  

11. 
    What is a respiratory volume?
    

• 
  various volumes of air moved by or associated with the lungs at a given point in the respiratory rate
  
• 
  various volumes of air moved by or associated with the lungs at any point in the respiratory cycle
  
• 
  various volumes of air moved by or associated with the lungs at a given point in the respiratory cycle
  

XII. Read the following sentences and choose a correct word\word combination.

1. 
   Respiration is the interchange\replacement of gases between an organism and the medium in which it lives.
   
2. 
   The internal process\external process of respiration involves the transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide that occurs in the lungs between the atmosphere and the pulmonary circulation\general circulation.
   
3. 
   The main function of the respiration is water exchange\gas exchange.
   
4. 
   Gas exchange is a result of increased concentration of O₂, and a decrease of CO_2, and is done through the process of diffusion\oxidation.
   
5. 
   Oxygen is carried in blood bound to fibrin\hemoglobin and dissolved in the plasma\tissues.
   
6. 
   Physiological respiration involves respiratory cycles of inhalation usually an active\passive movement and exhalation usually an active\passive process.
   
7. 
   The portions of the CNS controlling respiration are located within the cortex\brain stem.
   
8. 
   When the diaphragm contracts it moves inferiorly toward the thoracic\abdominal cavity, creating a larger thoracic cavity\abdominal cavity and more space for the lungs.
   
9. 
   Vital capacity\ total lung capacity is the amount of air a person can move into or out of the lungs
   

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XIII. Mach the words\word combinations (1-6) with the following definitions

1. 
   respiration
   
2. 
   diffusion
   
3. 
   respiratory rate
   
4. 
   pulmonary ventilation
   
5. 
   alveolar pressure
   
6. 
   tidal volume
   

1. 
   the air pressure within the alveoli
   
2. 
   interchange of gases between an organism and the medium in which it lives
   
3. 
   total number of breaths, or respiratory cycles, that occur each minute
   
4. 
   act of breathing, described as the exchange of air between the external environment and the alveoli
   
5. 
   amount of air that normally enters the lungs during quiet breathing
   
6. 
   movement of a substance in a solution (liquid or air) from higher concentration areas to lower concentration areas
   

XIV. Make pairs of antonyms:

• 
  inhalation, inspire, obtain, contract, internal, breathing in, increase, high, carry to
  
• 
  relax, low, external, remove, expire, exhalation, decrease, breathing out, transport from
  

XV. Match the words to make a word combination:

respiratory capacity

vital pressure

intercostal function

gas respiration

external chemoreceptors

central exchange

atmospheric volume

residual muscles

primary rate
XVI. Replace Russian words with English equivalents:

Дыханиеis the interchange of gases between an organism and the среда it lives in. Respiration делится на external and internal processes. The main function of the respiration is gas exchange. The газообмен is done through the process of диффузии. The частота дыхания is the total number of дыхательных движений, or respiratory cycles, that occur each minute. Breathing is controlled by the центральной нервной системой. Pulmonary ventilation is the exchange of air between the external environment and the альвеолами comprising two steps: вдох and выдох. The major mechanisms that drive pulmonary ventilation areатмосферное давление, альвеолярное давление, и внутриплевральное давление. Two muscle groups are used: the диафрагма and theнаружные межрёберные мышцы.Объём лёгкихis the term used for various volumes of air moved by or associated with the лёгкими at a given point in the respiratory cycle. Ёмкость лёгких is the combination of two or more selected volumes, which further describes the amount of air in the lungs during a given time.

XVII. Complete the sentences bellow filling in the missing words from the Key Words:

Key Words: bigger, contracts, inhalation, exhalation, diaphragm, intercostal, relax, less
Breathing in is called ______________. Breathing out is called __________________. Breathing is brought about by two sets of muscles, the _____________________ found between the ribs and the _____________________ which separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.

When you inhale the muscle ______________and makes the volume of the chest ________ so air is forced into the lungs. When you exhale the muscles _______________, and the volume of the chest becomes ____________ so air is forced out of the lungs.

XVIII. See the steps below the diagram, put them in the right order:

1. 
   air is exhaled
   

1. 
   ribs & sternum elevate, diaphragm moves downward
   
2. 
   external intercostal muscles & diaphragm relax
   
3. 
   diaphragm, ribs & sternum return to resting position
   
4. 
   air moves into lungs
   
5. 
   pressure in lungs increases
   
6. 
   air pressure in lungs lowers
   
7. 
   thoracic cavity restores the preinspiratory volume
   
8. 
   front- to-back dimension of thoracic cavity and vertical dimension of thoracic cavity increase
   

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Listening
XIX. Make the Respiratory Quiz:

1. 
   How many liters of air does an individual process per day (in resting position)?
   

• 
  6 000 liters
  
• 
  15 000 liters
  
• 
  12 000 liters
  

2. 
   How many liters are transported to our body’s cells?
   

• 
  200 liters
  
• 
  600 liters
  
• 
  900 liters
  

3. 
   What is the range of movement of the diaphragm during the quit breathing?
   

• 
  5 cm
  
• 
  15 cm
  
• 
  1,5 cm
  

4. 
   How many liters of air are expelled and left in the lungs with each respiration?
   

• 
  Expels half a liter, leaving 2,5 liter in lungs with each expiration
  
• 
  A liter, leaving 2 liter in lungs with each expiration
  
• 
  2 liters, leaving 5 liter in lungs with each expiration
  

5. 
   How many liters of air do we inhale and exhale during vigorous exercise?
   

• 
  2 liters per breath
  
• 
  4 liters per breath
  
• 
  6 liters per breath
  

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