ВУЗ: Не указан
Категория: Не указан
Дисциплина: Не указана
Добавлен: 23.11.2023
Просмотров: 597
Скачиваний: 4
ВНИМАНИЕ! Если данный файл нарушает Ваши авторские права, то обязательно сообщите нам.
§ 33. The Subjective Infinitive Construction.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction (traditionally called the Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction) is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case..
The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.
Edith is said to resemble me. (Dickens)
Говорят, что Эдит похожа на меня.
THE USE OF THE SUBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the following groups of verbs in the Passive Voice:
1. With verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear etc.
Mr. Bob Sawyer was heard to laugh heartily. (Dickens)
Слышно было, как весело смеется Боб Сойер.
The rider was seen to disappear in the distance.
Видно было, как всадник скрылся вдали.
If a process is expressed Participle I Indefinite Active is used.
Tess’s father was heard approaching at that moment. (Hardy)
В этот момент они услышали, что подходит отец Тэсс.
2. With verbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to know, to expect, to believe, to suppose.
He was thought to be honest and kindly. (Dreiser)
Его считали честным и добрым человеком.
My father... was considered by many to be a great man. (Gowand
D’Usseau)
Многие считали моего отца незаурядным человеком.
Philip Bosinney was known to be a young man without fortune.
(Galsworthy)
Было известно, что Филипп Босини — молодой человек без состояния.
I know that Priam Farll is supposed to have been buried in Westminster
Abbey. (Bennett)
Я знаю, что считают (предполагают), будто бы Приам Фарл похоронен в
Вестминстерском Аббатстве.
The manuscript is believed to have been written in the 15th century.
Полагают, что эта рукопись написана в XV веке.
3. With the verb to make.
Little Abraham was aroused... and made to put on his clothes... (Hardy)
Маленького Эбрахама разбудили и заставили одеться.
4. With the verbs to say and to report.
The gods had given Irene dark-brown eyes and golden hair, which is said to
be the mark of a weak character. (Galsworthy)
Боги наделили Ирэн темно-карими глазами и золотистыми волосами,
что, как говорят, является признаком слабости характера.
From these examples we can see that in translating sentences containing the Subjective Infinitive Construction after verbs in the Passive Voice a complex sentence is mostly used: its principal clause is of the type which in Russian syntax is called ‘indefinite personal’ (неопределенно-личное предложение).
After verbs in the Passive Voice the Subjective Infinitive Construction is more characteristic of literary than of colloquial style, except with the verbs
to suppose, to expect, to make; with these verbs the Subjective Infinitive can be found both in fiction and in colloquial language.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the word-groups to be likely, to be sure, and to be certain.
The parish is not likely to quarrel with him for the right to keep the child.
(Eliot)
Приход вряд ли будет оспаривать у него право содержать этого ребенка.
But he is sure to marry her. (Hardy)
Но он бесспорно (несомненно) женится на ней.
This fire is certain to produce a panic in the morning. (Dreiser)
Этот пожар бесспорно (несомненно) вызовет утром панику.
Sentences of this kind are rendered in Russian by a simple sentence with a modal word. Note the difference between:
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the following pairs of synonyms: to seem and to appear; to happen and to chance (the latter is literary); to prove and to turn out.
They seemed to have quite forgotten him already. (Hardy)
Они, казалось (по-видимому), уже совершенно забыли его.
Her eyes appeared always to gaze beyond, and far beyond. (E. Bronte)
Ее глаза, казалось, всегда были устремлены куда-то далеко-далеко.
Mrs. Cowperwood, in spite of the difference in their years, appeared to be a
fit mate for him at this time. (Dreiser)
Несмотря на разницу в возрасте, миссис Каупервуд в этот период его
жизни, по-видимому (казалось), была для него подходящей женой.
Only yesterday we happened to see Soames Forsyte. (Galsworthy)
Только вчера мы случайно встретили Сомса Форсайта.
By 11 o’clock her mother had chanced to look into her room. (Dreiser)
Около 11 часов мать случайно заглянула к ней в комнату.
The experiment proved to be a failure. (Collins)
Опыт оказался неудачным.
They all turned out to be good fighters. (GowandD’Usseau)
Все они оказались хорошими бойцами.
N o t e. — The infinitive in sentences with the Subjective Infinitive
Construction cannot refer to a future action except with verbs and word-
groups whose meaning allows of it: to expect, to be sure (certain), to be likely.
We are sure to come at the heart of the matter. (Dickens)
Мы обязательно доберемся до сути дела.
Не is expected to give us an answer to-morrow.
Ожидают, что он даст нам ответ завтра.
§ 34. The for-to-Infinitive Construction.
The for-to-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun or pronoun preceded by the preposition for.
In translating this construction into Russian a subordinate clause or an infinitive is used.
The construction can have different functions in the sentence.1It can be:
1 All the observations concerning the infinitive as subject, object, attribute and adverbial modifier of result hold good when these parts of the sentence are expressed by the
for-to-Infinitive Construction.
1. Subject (often with the introductory it).
For me to ask would be treason, and for me to be told would be treason.
(Wilson)
Если бы я спросила, это было бы предательством; если бы мне сказали,
это было бы предательством.
I sometimes think it is a shame for people to spend so much money this
way. (Dreiser)
Я часто думаю, что стыдно людям тратить на это так много денег.
2. Predicative.
That was for him to find out. (Eliot)
Выяснить это должен был он.
3. Complex object.
He waited for her to speak. (Hardy)
Он ждал, когда она заговорит.
Не asked for the papers to be brought.
Он попросил принести бумаги.
I am very anxious for Mr. Headstone to succeed in all he undertakes.
(Dickens)
Мне очень хочется, чтобы мистеру Хедстону удавалось все, за что он
берется.
Erik saw that she was impatient for him to be gone. (Wilson)
Эрик видел, что она с нетерпением ожидает, когда он уйдет.
I hope you won’t think it very odd for a perfect stranger to talk to you like
this. (Maugham)
Я надеюсь, вы не сочтете странным, что совершенно незнакомый вам
человек разговаривает с вами таким образом.
4. Attribute.
The best thing for you to do is to bide here with your load.
I’ll send somebody to help you. (Hardy)
Самое лучшее, что вы можете сделать, — это подождать здесь с вашей
поклажей. Я пришлю кого-нибудь помочь вам.
There was really nothing for him to do but what he had done. (Dreiser)
Ему действительно ничего не оставалось делать, кроме того, что он
сделал (единственное, что ему оставалось сделать, было то, что он
сделал).
There’s nobody here for him to play with. (Hemingway)
Здесь нет никого, с кем он мог бы поиграть.
Не had even had a comfortable house for her (his niece) to live in. (Trоllоре)
У него даже был удобный дом, где она могла бы жить.
5. Adverbial modifier:
(a) of purpose.
Here’s the thermometer: they’ve left it for the doctor to see instead of
shaking it down. (Shaw)
Вот термометр; его не стряхнули, чтобы доктор мог посмотреть
температуру.
Не stepped aside for me to pass. (DuMaurier)
Он отошел, в сторону, чтобы я могла пройти.
(b) of result.
The pleasure of accompanying you was too great a temptation for me to
resist. (Collins)
Удовольствие сопровождать вас было так велико
, что я не мог ему
противиться.
But he had consented, and it was too late for him now to recede. (Trollope)
Но он уже дал согласие, и теперь было поздно отступать.
Не spoke loud enough for you to hear.
Он говорил достаточно громко, чтобы вы могли его слышать.
His experience of women was great enough for him to be aware that the
negative often meant nothing more than the preface to the affirmative.
(Hardy)
Он достаточно хорошо знал женщин, чтобы понимать, что отказ бывает
часто лишь преддверием к согласию.
§ 35. With the expressions to be sorry, to be glad the infinitive is used only if the subject of the sentence represents at the same time the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive.
I am glad (pleased) to have got a ticket for the concert.
I am glad to have seen you. (Dreiser)
I am very sorry to have done a man wrong, particularly when it can’t be
undone. (Dickens)
In other cases a clause is used with to be glad and to be sorry.
I am glad you got a ticket for the concert.
“I am glad you think so,” returned Doyce, with his grey eye looking kind and
bright. (Dickens)
Chapter IX
THE ADVERB
§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
The function of the adverb is that of an adverbial modifier. An adverb may modify verbs (verbals), words of the category of state, adjectives, and adverbs.
Annette turned her neck lazily, touched one eyelash and said: “He amuses
Winifred.” (Galsworthy)
And glancing sidelong at his nephew he thought... (Galsworthy)
For a second they stood with hands hard clasped. (Galsworthy)
And now the morning grew so fair, and all things were so wide awake.
(Dickens)
The man must have had diabolically acute hearing. (Wells)
Harris spoke quite kindly and sensibly about it. (Jerome)
§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
(1) simple adverbs (long, enough, then, there, etc.);
(2) derivative adverbs (slowly, likewise, forward, headlong, etc.); (The most productive adverb-forming suffix is ‑ly. There are also some other suffixes: ‑wards, ‑ward; ‑long, ‑wise.)
(3) compound adverbs (anyhow, sometimes, nowhere, etc.);
(4) composite adverbs (at once, at last, etc.).
§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
(a) If the adverb is a word of one syllable, the comparative degree is formed by adding ‑er and the superlative by adding -est.
fast — faster — fastest
hard — harder — hardest
(b) Adverbs ending in ‑ly form the comparative by means of more and the superlative by means of most.
wisely — more wisely — most wisely
beautifully — more beautifully — most beautifully
(c) Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:
well — better — best
badly — worse — worst
much — more — most
little — less — least
§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
(1) adverbs of time (today, tomorrow, soon, etc.);
(2) adverbs of repetition or frequency (often, seldom, ever, never, sometimes, etc.);
(3) adverbs of place and direction (inside, outside, here, there, backward, upstairs, etc.);
(4) adverbs of cause and consequence (therefore, consequently, accordingly, etc.);
(5) adverbs of manner (kindly, quickly, hard, etc.);
(6) adverbs of degree, measure and quantity (very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once, twice, firstly, secondly, etc.).
Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctive adverbs.
Interrogative adverbs (where, when, why, how) are used in special questions.
Conjunctive and relative adverbs are used to introduce subordinate clauses.1
Some adverbs are homonymous with prepositions, conjunctions2 and words of the category of state.3
1 See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence.
2 See Chapter XII, The Preposition.
3 See Chapter VI, The Words of the Category of State.
Chapter X
THE MODAL WORDS
§ 1. The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability, of the action he speaks about.
§ 2. According to their meaning modal words fall under the following main groups:
(1) words expressing certainty (certainly, surely, assuredly, of course, no doubt, apparently, undoubtedly, etc.);
(2) words expressing supposition (perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, etc.);
(3) words showing whether the speaker considers the action he speaks about desirable or undesirable (happily — unhappily; luckily — unluckily; fortunately — unfortunately).
§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses.1Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.2
1 See Chapter XV, The Simple Sentence.
2 Modal words used as sentence-words are similar to the words yes and no expressing affirmation and negation, which are also sentence-words.
Certainly you’ll admit we could finish all this in a month. (Wilson)
“Will you allow me to detain you one moment,” said he. “Certainly,” replied
the unwelcome visitor. (Dickens)
§ 4. Most modal words have developed from adverbs, so very often there exists a formal identity between modal words and adverbs. For instance such modal words as certainly, surely, happily are homonymous with the adverbs certainly, surely, happily.
Such modal words as possibly, probably, indeed, also derived from adverbs, have no corresponding homonymous adverbs because the latter ceased to be used in Modern English.
Though formally identical with adverbs, modal words differ from them in meaning and syntactical function.
If he were not married as happily as he was, might not something come of it?
(Dreiser) (ADVERB)
...she hauled me to the washstand, inflicted a merciless, but happily brief
scrub on my face and hands with soap water, and a coarse towel... (Ch.
Bronte) (MODAL WORD)
Lamlein rose. “We have fulfilled our obligations,” he said pompously, and yet
not quite certainly. (Heym) (ADVERB)
Soames smiled. Certainly, uncle Jolyon had a way with him. (Galsworthy)
(MODAL WORD)
Slowly, surely, with the secret inner process that works the destruction of an
old tree, the poison of the wounds to his happiness, his will, his pride, had
corroded the comely edifice of his philosophy. (Galsworthy) (ADVERB)
Over the ridge she would find him. Surely she would find him over the ridge.
(Wells) (MODAL WORD)
Chapter XI
THE INTERJECTION
§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech which expresses various emotions without naming them.
§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
1. Emotional interjections express the feelings of the speaker. They are: ah, oh, eh, bravo, alas, etc.
...A man jumped on top of the barricade and waving exuberantly shouted,
“Americans! Hurrah!” (Heym) (joy)
Alas! The white house was empty and there was a bill in the window “To let”.
(Dickens) (sorrow)
Psha! There’s no possibility of being witty without a little, ill nature.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction (traditionally called the Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction) is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case..
The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.
Edith is said to resemble me. (Dickens)
Говорят, что Эдит похожа на меня.
THE USE OF THE SUBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the following groups of verbs in the Passive Voice:
1. With verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear etc.
Mr. Bob Sawyer was heard to laugh heartily. (Dickens)
Слышно было, как весело смеется Боб Сойер.
The rider was seen to disappear in the distance.
Видно было, как всадник скрылся вдали.
If a process is expressed Participle I Indefinite Active is used.
Tess’s father was heard approaching at that moment. (Hardy)
В этот момент они услышали, что подходит отец Тэсс.
2. With verbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to know, to expect, to believe, to suppose.
He was thought to be honest and kindly. (Dreiser)
Его считали честным и добрым человеком.
My father... was considered by many to be a great man. (Gowand
D’Usseau)
Многие считали моего отца незаурядным человеком.
Philip Bosinney was known to be a young man without fortune.
(Galsworthy)
Было известно, что Филипп Босини — молодой человек без состояния.
I know that Priam Farll is supposed to have been buried in Westminster
Abbey. (Bennett)
Я знаю, что считают (предполагают), будто бы Приам Фарл похоронен в
Вестминстерском Аббатстве.
The manuscript is believed to have been written in the 15th century.
Полагают, что эта рукопись написана в XV веке.
3. With the verb to make.
Little Abraham was aroused... and made to put on his clothes... (Hardy)
Маленького Эбрахама разбудили и заставили одеться.
4. With the verbs to say and to report.
The gods had given Irene dark-brown eyes and golden hair, which is said to
be the mark of a weak character. (Galsworthy)
Боги наделили Ирэн темно-карими глазами и золотистыми волосами,
что, как говорят, является признаком слабости характера.
From these examples we can see that in translating sentences containing the Subjective Infinitive Construction after verbs in the Passive Voice a complex sentence is mostly used: its principal clause is of the type which in Russian syntax is called ‘indefinite personal’ (неопределенно-личное предложение).
After verbs in the Passive Voice the Subjective Infinitive Construction is more characteristic of literary than of colloquial style, except with the verbs
to suppose, to expect, to make; with these verbs the Subjective Infinitive can be found both in fiction and in colloquial language.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the word-groups to be likely, to be sure, and to be certain.
The parish is not likely to quarrel with him for the right to keep the child.
(Eliot)
Приход вряд ли будет оспаривать у него право содержать этого ребенка.
But he is sure to marry her. (Hardy)
Но он бесспорно (несомненно) женится на ней.
This fire is certain to produce a panic in the morning. (Dreiser)
Этот пожар бесспорно (несомненно) вызовет утром панику.
Sentences of this kind are rendered in Russian by a simple sentence with a modal word. Note the difference between:
| He is sure to come. | Он обязательно придет. |
| He is sure of coming. | Он уверен, что он придет. |
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the following pairs of synonyms: to seem and to appear; to happen and to chance (the latter is literary); to prove and to turn out.
They seemed to have quite forgotten him already. (Hardy)
Они, казалось (по-видимому), уже совершенно забыли его.
Her eyes appeared always to gaze beyond, and far beyond. (E. Bronte)
Ее глаза, казалось, всегда были устремлены куда-то далеко-далеко.
Mrs. Cowperwood, in spite of the difference in their years, appeared to be a
fit mate for him at this time. (Dreiser)
Несмотря на разницу в возрасте, миссис Каупервуд в этот период его
жизни, по-видимому (казалось), была для него подходящей женой.
Only yesterday we happened to see Soames Forsyte. (Galsworthy)
Только вчера мы случайно встретили Сомса Форсайта.
By 11 o’clock her mother had chanced to look into her room. (Dreiser)
Около 11 часов мать случайно заглянула к ней в комнату.
The experiment proved to be a failure. (Collins)
Опыт оказался неудачным.
They all turned out to be good fighters. (GowandD’Usseau)
Все они оказались хорошими бойцами.
N o t e. — The infinitive in sentences with the Subjective Infinitive
Construction cannot refer to a future action except with verbs and word-
groups whose meaning allows of it: to expect, to be sure (certain), to be likely.
We are sure to come at the heart of the matter. (Dickens)
Мы обязательно доберемся до сути дела.
Не is expected to give us an answer to-morrow.
Ожидают, что он даст нам ответ завтра.
§ 34. The for-to-Infinitive Construction.
The for-to-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun or pronoun preceded by the preposition for.
In translating this construction into Russian a subordinate clause or an infinitive is used.
The construction can have different functions in the sentence.1It can be:
1 All the observations concerning the infinitive as subject, object, attribute and adverbial modifier of result hold good when these parts of the sentence are expressed by the
for-to-Infinitive Construction.
1. Subject (often with the introductory it).
For me to ask would be treason, and for me to be told would be treason.
(Wilson)
Если бы я спросила, это было бы предательством; если бы мне сказали,
это было бы предательством.
I sometimes think it is a shame for people to spend so much money this
way. (Dreiser)
Я часто думаю, что стыдно людям тратить на это так много денег.
2. Predicative.
That was for him to find out. (Eliot)
Выяснить это должен был он.
3. Complex object.
He waited for her to speak. (Hardy)
Он ждал, когда она заговорит.
Не asked for the papers to be brought.
Он попросил принести бумаги.
I am very anxious for Mr. Headstone to succeed in all he undertakes.
(Dickens)
Мне очень хочется, чтобы мистеру Хедстону удавалось все, за что он
берется.
Erik saw that she was impatient for him to be gone. (Wilson)
Эрик видел, что она с нетерпением ожидает, когда он уйдет.
I hope you won’t think it very odd for a perfect stranger to talk to you like
this. (Maugham)
Я надеюсь, вы не сочтете странным, что совершенно незнакомый вам
человек разговаривает с вами таким образом.
4. Attribute.
The best thing for you to do is to bide here with your load.
I’ll send somebody to help you. (Hardy)
Самое лучшее, что вы можете сделать, — это подождать здесь с вашей
поклажей. Я пришлю кого-нибудь помочь вам.
There was really nothing for him to do but what he had done. (Dreiser)
Ему действительно ничего не оставалось делать, кроме того, что он
сделал (единственное, что ему оставалось сделать, было то, что он
сделал).
There’s nobody here for him to play with. (Hemingway)
Здесь нет никого, с кем он мог бы поиграть.
Не had even had a comfortable house for her (his niece) to live in. (Trоllоре)
У него даже был удобный дом, где она могла бы жить.
5. Adverbial modifier:
(a) of purpose.
Here’s the thermometer: they’ve left it for the doctor to see instead of
shaking it down. (Shaw)
Вот термометр; его не стряхнули, чтобы доктор мог посмотреть
температуру.
Не stepped aside for me to pass. (DuMaurier)
Он отошел, в сторону, чтобы я могла пройти.
(b) of result.
The pleasure of accompanying you was too great a temptation for me to
resist. (Collins)
Удовольствие сопровождать вас было так велико
, что я не мог ему
противиться.
But he had consented, and it was too late for him now to recede. (Trollope)
Но он уже дал согласие, и теперь было поздно отступать.
Не spoke loud enough for you to hear.
Он говорил достаточно громко, чтобы вы могли его слышать.
His experience of women was great enough for him to be aware that the
negative often meant nothing more than the preface to the affirmative.
(Hardy)
Он достаточно хорошо знал женщин, чтобы понимать, что отказ бывает
часто лишь преддверием к согласию.
§ 35. With the expressions to be sorry, to be glad the infinitive is used only if the subject of the sentence represents at the same time the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive.
I am glad (pleased) to have got a ticket for the concert.
I am glad to have seen you. (Dreiser)
I am very sorry to have done a man wrong, particularly when it can’t be
undone. (Dickens)
In other cases a clause is used with to be glad and to be sorry.
I am glad you got a ticket for the concert.
“I am glad you think so,” returned Doyce, with his grey eye looking kind and
bright. (Dickens)
Chapter IX
THE ADVERB
§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
The function of the adverb is that of an adverbial modifier. An adverb may modify verbs (verbals), words of the category of state, adjectives, and adverbs.
Annette turned her neck lazily, touched one eyelash and said: “He amuses
Winifred.” (Galsworthy)
And glancing sidelong at his nephew he thought... (Galsworthy)
For a second they stood with hands hard clasped. (Galsworthy)
And now the morning grew so fair, and all things were so wide awake.
(Dickens)
The man must have had diabolically acute hearing. (Wells)
Harris spoke quite kindly and sensibly about it. (Jerome)
§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
(1) simple adverbs (long, enough, then, there, etc.);
(2) derivative adverbs (slowly, likewise, forward, headlong, etc.); (The most productive adverb-forming suffix is ‑ly. There are also some other suffixes: ‑wards, ‑ward; ‑long, ‑wise.)
(3) compound adverbs (anyhow, sometimes, nowhere, etc.);
(4) composite adverbs (at once, at last, etc.).
§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
(a) If the adverb is a word of one syllable, the comparative degree is formed by adding ‑er and the superlative by adding -est.
fast — faster — fastest
hard — harder — hardest
(b) Adverbs ending in ‑ly form the comparative by means of more and the superlative by means of most.
wisely — more wisely — most wisely
beautifully — more beautifully — most beautifully
(c) Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:
well — better — best
badly — worse — worst
much — more — most
little — less — least
§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
(1) adverbs of time (today, tomorrow, soon, etc.);
(2) adverbs of repetition or frequency (often, seldom, ever, never, sometimes, etc.);
(3) adverbs of place and direction (inside, outside, here, there, backward, upstairs, etc.);
(4) adverbs of cause and consequence (therefore, consequently, accordingly, etc.);
(5) adverbs of manner (kindly, quickly, hard, etc.);
(6) adverbs of degree, measure and quantity (very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once, twice, firstly, secondly, etc.).
Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctive adverbs.
Interrogative adverbs (where, when, why, how) are used in special questions.
Conjunctive and relative adverbs are used to introduce subordinate clauses.1
Some adverbs are homonymous with prepositions, conjunctions2 and words of the category of state.3
1 See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence.
2 See Chapter XII, The Preposition.
3 See Chapter VI, The Words of the Category of State.
Chapter X
THE MODAL WORDS
§ 1. The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability, of the action he speaks about.
§ 2. According to their meaning modal words fall under the following main groups:
(1) words expressing certainty (certainly, surely, assuredly, of course, no doubt, apparently, undoubtedly, etc.);
(2) words expressing supposition (perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, etc.);
(3) words showing whether the speaker considers the action he speaks about desirable or undesirable (happily — unhappily; luckily — unluckily; fortunately — unfortunately).
§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses.1Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.2
1 See Chapter XV, The Simple Sentence.
2 Modal words used as sentence-words are similar to the words yes and no expressing affirmation and negation, which are also sentence-words.
Certainly you’ll admit we could finish all this in a month. (Wilson)
“Will you allow me to detain you one moment,” said he. “Certainly,” replied
the unwelcome visitor. (Dickens)
§ 4. Most modal words have developed from adverbs, so very often there exists a formal identity between modal words and adverbs. For instance such modal words as certainly, surely, happily are homonymous with the adverbs certainly, surely, happily.
Such modal words as possibly, probably, indeed, also derived from adverbs, have no corresponding homonymous adverbs because the latter ceased to be used in Modern English.
Though formally identical with adverbs, modal words differ from them in meaning and syntactical function.
If he were not married as happily as he was, might not something come of it?
(Dreiser) (ADVERB)
...she hauled me to the washstand, inflicted a merciless, but happily brief
scrub on my face and hands with soap water, and a coarse towel... (Ch.
Bronte) (MODAL WORD)
Lamlein rose. “We have fulfilled our obligations,” he said pompously, and yet
not quite certainly. (Heym) (ADVERB)
Soames smiled. Certainly, uncle Jolyon had a way with him. (Galsworthy)
(MODAL WORD)
Slowly, surely, with the secret inner process that works the destruction of an
old tree, the poison of the wounds to his happiness, his will, his pride, had
corroded the comely edifice of his philosophy. (Galsworthy) (ADVERB)
Over the ridge she would find him. Surely she would find him over the ridge.
(Wells) (MODAL WORD)
Chapter XI
THE INTERJECTION
§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech which expresses various emotions without naming them.
§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
1. Emotional interjections express the feelings of the speaker. They are: ah, oh, eh, bravo, alas, etc.
...A man jumped on top of the barricade and waving exuberantly shouted,
“Americans! Hurrah!” (Heym) (joy)
Alas! The white house was empty and there was a bill in the window “To let”.
(Dickens) (sorrow)
Psha! There’s no possibility of being witty without a little, ill nature.