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(Sheridan) (contempt)
Oh, bother! I can’t see anyone now. Who is it? (Shaw) (indignation)
“Dear me!” says Mr. Chillip meekly smiling with something shining in his
eyes. (Dickens) (surprise)
2. Imperative interjections show the will of the speaker or his order or appeal to the hearer. They are: here, hush, sh-sh, well, come, now, etc.
Here! I’ve had enough of this. I’m going. (Shaw) (protest)
“Upon my word I was not awake, sir,” replied Oliver earnestly. “I was not, indeed, sir.” “Tush, tush, my dear!” said the Jew abruptly resuming his old manner. (Dickens) (order)
§ 3. Interjections may be primary and secondary.
1. Primary interjections are not derived from other parts of speech. Most of them are simple words: ah, oh, eh, pooh, hum, fie, bravo, hush. Only a few primary interjections are composite: heigh-ho! hey-ho! holla-ho! gee-ho!
2. Secondary interjections are derived from other parts of speech. They are homonymous with the words they are derived from. They are: well, now, here, there, come, why, etc.
(Derivative interjections should not be confused with exclamation-words, such as nonsense, shame, good, etc.)
Derivative interjections may be simple: well, here, there, come, etc., and composite: dear me, confound it, hang it, etc.
Interjections are used as independent sentence-words or independent elements of the sentence.1
1 See Chapter XV, § 42.
T h e D a u g h t e r: Sixpence thrown away! Really mamma, you might have
spared Freddy that.
T h e G e n t l e m a n: Phew! (Shaw)
Well, I don’t like those mysterious little pleasure trips that he is so fond of
taking. (Voynich)
N о t e. — Formulas of courtesy, greetings, etc. should not be regarded as
interjections. Thus, good-bye, thank you are not interjections because they do
not express emotion or will.
Chapter ХП
THE PREPOSITION
§ 1. The preposition is a part of speech which denotes the relations between objects and phenomena. It shows the relations between a noun or a pronoun and other words.
Usually the preposition is not stressed and stands before the word it refers to.
Desert moved quickly to the windows. (Galsworthy)
Sometimes, however, a preposition may be separated from the word it refers to and placed at the end of the sentence or clause. In that case it is stressed.
But he sounds as though he knows what he’s talking about. (Wilson)
The preposition may be weakly stressed before a pronoun.
She wrote the words to them herself, and other poems. (Galsworthy)
The preposition is stressed when its meaning is emphasized.
The book was in the table, not on it.
§ 2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
(1) simple (in, on, at, for, with, etc.);
(2) derivative (behind, below, across, along, etc.);
(3) compound (inside, outside, within, without, etc.);
(4) composite (because of, in front of, in accordance with, etc.).
§ 3. According to their meaning prepositions may be divided into prepositions of place and direction (in, on, below, under, between, etc.), time (after, before, at, etc.), prepositions expressing abstract relations (отвлеченные отношения) (by, with, because of, with a view to, etc.).
The lexical meaning of some prepositions is quite concrete (e. g. in, below, between, before, after, till, etc.), while that of some other prepositions may be weakened to a great extent (e. g. to, by, of).
For instance, the preposition to generally indicates direction or movement towards something:
Every night Sissy went to Rachel’s lodging, and sat with her in her small neat
room. (Dickens)
But in some cases the lexical meaning of the preposition to is weakened.
...all the house belongs to me, or will do in a few years.
(Ch. Bronte)
Some prepositions are polysemantic and may express different relations; e. g. for:
Never once had Erik sensed the struggle for life. (Wilson) (purpose.)
Even when their eyes had met and her sister had approached the bed, Louisa
lay for minutes looking at her in silence... (Dickens) (time)
She could scarcely move her head for pain and heaviness, her eyes were
strained and sore, and she was very weak. (Dickens) (cause)
§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.
For instance, the prepositions after and before are homonymous with the adverbs after and before and with the conjunctions after and before.
There is an old saying that if a man has not fallen in love before forty, he had
better not fall in love after. (Shaw) (ADVERB)
When he got back to Ann Arbor, he found Savina in a state of excitement
because Trasker had heard from Regan after Erik had left. (Wilson)
(CONJUNCTION)
“Where do you intend to stay tonight?” she asked after a moment. (Wilson)
(PREPOSITION)
The colour rushed into Bosinney’s face, but soon receded, leaving it sallow-
brown as before. (Galsworthy) (ADVERB)
He did not write to her, and it was almost a year before he began to see her
again. (Wilson) (CONJUNCTION)
This letter seemed to afford her peculiar satisfaction; she read it through twice
before replying to the landlady. (Mansfield) (PREPOSITION)
Though identical inform, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are different parts of speech. The adverb, unlike the preposition and conjunction, serves as part of the sentence, e. g. after is an adverbial modifier of time, etc.
§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.1
1 See Chapter VII, § 2.
A preposition as well as a postposition does not perform any independent function in the sentence. But while a preposition denotes the relation between objects and phenomena, a postposition is part of a composite verb.
A preposition is not usually stressed, while a postposition usually bears the stress.
We’ve got to live on what we earn. (Cronin) (PREPOSITION)
He liked Erik more than any of the assistants the department had taken on in a
long time, as much as he could like, one of the younger men. (Wilson)
(POSTPOSITION)
Chapter XIII
THE CONJUNCTION
§ 1. The conjunction is a part of speech which denotes connections between objects and phenomena. It connects parts of the sentence, clauses, and sentences.
Sadie brought them in and went back to the door. (Mansfield)
...the blinds were down in the dining-room and the lights turned on — and all
the lights were red-roses. (Mansfield)
The other day I was saying to Fabermacher that Haviland isn’t really cruel,
he’s just thoughtless. And Fabermacher said that was the cruellest thing about
the human race. And he’s right. (Wilson)
§ 2. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:
(1) simple conjunctions (and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when, etc.).
Some of the simple conjunctions are homonymous with prepositions, adverbs, and pronouns.
(2) derivative conjunctions (until, unless, etc.).
(3) compound conjunctions (however, whereas, wherever, etc.). These conjunctions are few.
(4) composite conjunctions (as well as, as long as, in case, for fear (that), on the ground that, for the reason that, etc.).
Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): both... and, either... or, not only... but (also), neither... nor, whether... or.
If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the question would
have seemed to him both ridiculous and
sentimental. (Galsworthy)
...nor would John Reed have found it out himself; he was not quick either of
vision or conception. (Ch. Bronte)
Her son had not only come home, but he had come home a good person.
(Abrahams)
Well, they were honest eyes, he concluded, and in them was neither
smallness nor meanness. (London)
He was aware of vague memories of rain and wind and snow, but whether he
had been beaten by the storm for two days or two weeks he did not know.
(London)
§ 3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes:
(1) coordinating conjunctions;
(2) subordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence (a), or homogeneous parts in a simple sentence (b), or homogeneous subordinate clauses in a complex sentence (c), or independent sentences (d).
(a) He had said he would stay quiet in the hall, but he simply couldn’t any
more; and crossing the gravel of the drive he lay down on the grass beyond.
(Galsworthy)
(b) He opened his eyes and stared quietly at the pure sky. (Wilson)
(c) Hers was that common insularity of mind that makes human creatures
believe that their color, creed, and politics are best and right and that other
human creatures scattered over the world are less fortunately placed than they.
(London)
(d) Fabermacher wasted no time on a comedy of errors, and Havi-land
apologized for his mistake. But he was not as impressed as Erik had wanted
him to be. (Wilson)
Subordinating conjunctions generally join a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence (b), or sometimes they join homogeneous parts (c).
(a) When he was eight, he got work in another mill. (London)
(b) He shook his head a bit as if in wonder that he had permitted himself to be
caught in such crosscurrents. (Wilson)
(c) My look or something else must have struck her as offensive, for she
spoke with extreme, though suppressed irritation. (Ch. Bronte)
§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions.
The meaning of conjunctions is closely connected with the relations they express. Thus the classes of coordinating conjunctions according to their meaning correspond to different types of compound sentences.
There are four different kinds of coordinating conjunctions.
1. Copulative conjunctions: and, nor, as well as, both ... and, not only ... but (also)f neither... nor. Copulative conjunctions chiefly denote that one statement or fact is simply added to another (nor and neither express that relation in the negative sense).
There was a scent of honey from the lime trees in flower, and in the sky the
blue was beautiful, with a few white clouds. (Galsworthy)
His whole face was colourless rock; his eye was both spark and flint. (Ch.
Bronte)
I do not know what they knew of the things happening beyond the hill, nor do
I know if the silent houses I passed on my way were sleeping securely...
(Wells)
...but it made him indeed suspect that she could give as well as receive; and
she gave him nothing. (Galsworthy)
...the newspapers discussed the play for a whole fortnight not only in the
ordinary theatrical notices and criticisms, but in leading articles and letters.
(Shaw)
He went on as a statue would: that is, he neither spoke nor moved. (Ch.
Bronte)
2. Disjunctive conjunctions: or, either... or, or else, else.
Disjunctive conjunctions offer some choice between one statement and another.
The majority of the inhabitants had escaped, I suppose, by way of the Old
Worning road... or they had hidden. (Wells)
...either his furlough was up, or he dreaded to meet any witnesses of his
Waterloo flight. (Thackeray)
He was compelled to think this thought, or
else there would not be any use to
strive, and he would have lain down and died. (London)
“You go and fetch her down, Tom,” said Mr. Tulliver, rather sharply, his
perspicacity or his fatherly fondness for Maggie making him suspect that the
lad had been hard upon “the little un”, else she would never have left his
side... (Eliot)
3. Adversative conjunctions: but, while, whereas. Adversative conjunctions show that one statement or fact is contrasted with or set against another.
Fabermacher nodded in agreement, but his eyes glittered with silent triumph
and contempt for the victory. (Wilson)
His nerves had become blunted, numb, while his mind was filled with weird
visions and delicious dreams. (London)
4. Causative-consecutive conjunctions: so, for. Causative-consecutive conjunctions denote consequence, result, or reason. By these conjunctions one statement or fact is inferred or proved from another.
He had gone some miles away, and was not expected home until late at night;
so the landlady dispatched the same messenger in all haste for Mr. Pecksniff.
(Dickens)
His eyes mast have had in them something of George Forsyte’s sardonic look;
for her gloved hand crisped the folds of her frock, her eyebrows rose, her face
went stony. (Galsworthy)
The conjunction for is a border-line case between a coordinating and a subordinating conjunction. When expressing cause it approaches in its meaning the subordinating conjunctions as, because:
There was moreover time to spare, for Fleur was to meet him at the Gallery at
four o’clock, and it was yet half past two. (Galsworthy)
Coordinating conjunctions can be used both in compound and in simple sentences; the coordinating copulative conjunctions both... and, as well as are used only in simple sentences.
Then he shrugged in impatience and said frankly, “I don’t know what came
over me.” “You know as well as I do and that’s why we’re going away,”
Savina insisted steadily. (Wilson)
The use of the copulative conjunction and in simple sentences as well as in compound sentences is widely spread.
But as he did so, unexpectedly he paused, and raised his head. (Cronln)
The coordinating conjunctions neither... nor, or, either... or are more widely used in simple sentences than in complex sentences.
There was nothing remarkable about the size of the eyes. They were neither
large nor small... (London)
...in order to make a man or a boy covet a thing, it is only necessary to make
the thing difficult to attain. (Twain)
...there was a slight smile on his lips that could have been either amusement
or shy self-deprecation. (Wilson)
Some of the coordinating conjunctions are polysemantic. Thus the coordinating conjunction and may indicate different relations:
...there stood a white house within a walled garden, and in the pantry of this
we found a store of food. (Wells) (COPULATIVE)
You are nineteen, Jon, and I am seventy-two. How are we to understand each
other in a matter like this, eh? (Galsworthy) (ADVERSATIVE)
When he read those books something happened to him, and he went out of
doors again in passionate quest of a river. (Galsworthy) (CONSECUTIVE)
The conjunction or may have a disjunctive and an adversative meaning.
Happily it (a hackney-coach) brought them to the place where Jonas dwelt or
the young ladies might have rather missed the point and cream of the jest.
(Dickens) (ADVERSATIVE)
After that one would see, or more probably one would not. (Galsworthy)
(DISJUNCTIVE)
The causative-consecutive conjunction for may have a causative or a consecutive meaning:
He would have to be more careful than man had ever been, for the least thing
would give it away and make her as wretched as himself almost. (Galsworthy)
(CAUSATIVE)
From the warmth of her embrace he probably divined that he had let the cat
out of the bag, for he rode off at once on irony. (Galsworthy)
(CONSECUTIVE)
§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.
Subordinating conjunctions may introduce subject clauses, object clauses, predicative clauses, adverbial clauses, and attributive clauses.1
1 See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence.
Many of the subordinating conjunctions introduce different kinds of clauses. For instance that may introduce subject clauses, predicative clauses, object clauses, adverbial clauses of purpose and of result.
That Ruth had little faith in his power as a writer did not alter her nor diminsh
her in Martin’s eyes. (London) (SUBJECT CLAUSE)
What I mean is that you’re the first man I ever met who’s willing to admit out
loud to a woman that he thinks she’s better than he is. (Wilson)
(PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)
He looked to the south and knew that somewhere beyond those blue hills lay
the Great Bear Lake. (London) (OBJECT CLAUSE)
He walked into the Green Park that he might cross to Victoria Station and
take the Underground into the City. (Galsworthy) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
OF PURPOSE)
He bailed wildly at first, splashing himself and flinging the water so short a
distance that it ran back into the pool. (London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF
RESULT)
The conjunction if introduces object clauses and adverbial clauses of condition:
He was anxious to see if she had relapsed since the previous evening.
(Dickens) (OBJECT CLAUSE)
If the man ran, he would run after him; but the man did not run. (London)
(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONDITION)
The conjunction as introduces adverbial clauses of time, of cause, and of comparison:
These were the thoughts of the man as he strove onward. (London)
(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)
As Jacob has made me captain, I must call the roll. (Dodge) (ADVERBIAL
CLAUSE OF CAUSE)
That day had decreased the distance between him and the ship by three miles;
the next day by two — for he was crawling now as Bill had crawled.
(London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF COMPARISON)
The conjunction while may express both coordination and subordination. It may be a coordinating adversative conjunction (in this case it is translated as тогдакак; a) or a subordinating conjunction of time (in this case it is translated as втовремякак, пока).
Older men probably resented him while others of his own generation could
feel so inadequate when comparing their talent to his... (Wilson)
(COORDINATING CONJUNCTION)
While skating along at full speed, they heard the cars from Amsterdam
coming close behind them. (Dodge) (SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION)
Subordinating conjunctions may also be used in simple sentences. They join adverbial modifiers to the predicate of the sentence. Conjunctions of comparison, such as as if, as though are frequently used in simple sentences.
He scowled at first; then, as if recollecting something, he said... (Ch. Bronte)
He seemed faint and dizzy and put out his free hand while he reeled, as
though seeking support against the air. (London)
The subordinating conjunctions though and if are also used in simple sentences:
Though alone, he was not lost. (London)
Next, he sheered to the left, to escape the foot of the bed; but this sheer, if too
generous, brought him against the corner of the table. (London)
Subordinating conjunctions of time are rarely used in simple sentences. In that case they are mostly used with participles:
That she was one of those women — not too common in the Anglo-Saxon
race — born to be loved and to love, who when not loving are not living, had
certainly never even occurred to him.