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the board in 1944. The aim of “comprehensive” education—the merging of the separate strands of secondary education—was pursued in the 1960s and ’70s. The major flaw in the strategy was the continuing and influential presence of the old grammar (now private) schools. This long-established elite had grown very rapidly in the late 19th century. The most prestigious were united in the “Headmasters’ Conference” (1869), an alliance of about 100 private schools.

The access of school graduates to the colleges and universities had been a source of contention in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The small number of places and the cost of tuition fostered a highly concentrated educational elite. After 1945, both of these elements changed dramatically. The growth of universities, which had begun in the 19th century, accelerated rapidly after 1945; the principle of government-supported tuition was adopted, making places open to applicants on merit. The national system of examinations (A-level and O-level) provided the basic screening for further education and employment.

For WALES the story of educational advance is complicated by its relation to ENGLAND. All education was affected by the bilingual nature of Welsh society, which only began to be fully addressed in the 1960s. Early schools in Wales were also limited in their resources, with some important reform efforts coming at the end of the 17th century, boosted by the rise of EVAN- GELICAL movements. There were few grammar schools, and Welshmen who sought university training went to OXFORD UNIVERSITY. Only in the 19th century did university-level education come to Wales, at first in denominational schools; by the end of the century there was a University of Wales. Where the 19th century had seen progressive change in England, the earliest inquiry into Welsh schools provoked a crisis. The inspectors reported that there was far too much Welsh spoken, and they gave the schools a very poor rating. This incident spurred the rise of Welsh national sentiment, and in a backhand fashion it may have also stimulated interest and effort in school reform.

SCOTLAND

A Scottish act of 1496 called for the compulsory education of the sons of BARONS, but in the 1560s the Book of Discipline set forth the objective of education for all believers. PARISH and BURGH schools were the objects of 17th-century legislation requiring landowners to pay for their operation, most notably a parish schools act in 1696. Greater prosperity in the 18th century made the goal more realistic. An act in 1803 enabled the CHURCH OF SCOTLAND to set standards, and it provided for the establishment of additional schools. The system was studied by the Argyll Commission (1864–67) and in 1872 there was a general overhaul. Rates were collected for education, government grants were instituted, and inspectors appeared for the new compulsory system, operated under the direction of 1,000 local boards and the “Scotch” Education Department—in London. The acts of 1918 and 1944 raised the leaving age and made secondary education generally available, as else-

where in the UNITED KINGDOM.

The Scottish universities—Edinburgh, Glasgow, St. Andrews, and Aberdeen—dated from the later Middle Ages, and they had some features which were superior to the English, for instance in medical education. They too were in need of reform in the 19th century, and a Universities Act in 1889 modernized their organization and improved access. In the mid-20th century new universities were established in SCOTLAND, and increased general financial support was provided.

IRELAND

Schooling in IRELAND was adversely affected by the PENAL LAWS (ca. 1690–1770). The majority Catholic population was not served in any systematic fashion, though the tradition of the “hedge” schools says that itinerant teachers provided a source of elementary schooling, as did their cousins in Welsh “circulating schools.” All that is known for certain is that there was no uniform national provision until the 1830s. Then a system was inaugurated, under English stimulus, of nondenominational schools. These

were supposed to be for all children, to be managed jointly by Catholic and Protestant administrators. The scheme provided funds and rules, but the schools soon became denominational. In 1878 an Intermediate Education Act provided funds from the old church establishment to individual secondary schools. The allocations were based on examination results, a system that was replaced by a capitation method in 1924. By then the movement for Irish independence had made a major impact, especially in the revival of the Irish language, though the system’s structure continued to be much like the days of English rule. Indeed, in NORTHERN IRELAND, that was a definite objective, as was a policy of discriminatory access to education and funding.

The oldest university in Ireland was Trinity College (University of Dublin) founded in 1592. There was no provision for Catholic university education until the 19th century, and then it was a source of controversy. A set of Queen’s Colleges established in the 1840s (Cork, Galway, BELFAST) were intended to be interdenominational and therefore spurned by the Catholic hierarchy. A Catholic university was begun in 1879, but this was overtaken by the establishment of a National University of Ireland in 1908, with campuses in DUBLIN and Belfast, plus the Pontifical University at Maynooth, begun in 1886. Higher education grew much more in the 20th century, and there are now over 40 institutions, including a Dublin Institute of Technology, with regional centers and special branch schools.

With partition in 1922, the education system in Northern Ireland became separate from the rest of the island. It was linked to the U.K. education system, but there were some unusual features. Segregation was the main characteristic of the system. The government in STORMONT tried to pass an act providing a secular, publicly financed system of elementary education, but both Protestants and Catholics were afraid to surrender control. In the end a system was established in which a full government subsidy went to those schools that followed the Protestant curriculum. When state support was introduced for secondary education in 1947, there was only

limited assistance for Catholic schools. The imbalances in funding began to be corrected in the 1960s. In the 1970s efforts began to improve contacts between the two sectors, and these efforts gained funding from the government in the 1980s, with mandated programs for education for mutual understanding. Meanwhile a small number of integrated schools were created, although these only accounted for 1 percent of the school population in the early 1990s.

Edward III (1312–1377) king of England, 1327–1377

The son of Edward II, Edward III succeeded that unhappy sovereign after the father was deposed by his queen and her lover, Roger MORTIMER. Edward assumed power in his own right in 1330 and had Mortimer executed. The successes of his reign mirrored the failures of his father’s. He placated the BARONS and the merchants, chiefly by success in wars against SCOTLAND and France, in both of which he captured their kings and held them to ransom. His campaigns in France were initially victorious, at Sluys (1340), Crécy (1346), and Poitiers (1356). He was so certain of ultimate victory that he claimed the title of King of France (1340 and 1369), which would remain as part of the English royal style until the 19th century. But his victories had turned sour by the 1370s. French recovery after 1369, the drain of heavy expenditures, and the ineffective efforts of his son, the ailing Black Prince, all weakened the king’s political position. He was confronted by the IMPEACHMENT of numerous royal servants and even his own mistress in the “Good Parliament” of 1376. When he died, he was succeeded by his grandson, RICHARD II.

Edward IV (1442–1483)

king of England, 1461–1470, 1471–1483

Edward IV was the eldest son of Richard, duke of YORK, and leader of that faction in the Wars of the ROSES. His first coronation came after the defeat of HENRY VI (Mortimer’s Cross and Towton). He was only 18, his Lancastrian opponents were still

strong, and he was himself still under the influence of the magnates in his own group, notably the earl of WARWICK, alias “the kingmaker.” Warwick invaded ENGLAND in 1470 and forced Edward to flee into exile, but the king returned the following year, defeated Warwick at the Battle of BARNET, and then beat the Lancastrian forces at TEWKESBURY and reclaimed his crown.

In the second half of his reign, Edward succeeded in reestablishing the royal power which had been so depleted during the factional warfare since 1455. He did so by reviving a strong council of intimate advisers, taking control over government finance, and meeting and managing PARLIAMENTS. His greatest error, perhaps, was to die before his two sons had reached maturity, creating the opportunity that his brother RICHARD III was only too eager to seize.

Edward V (1470–1483)

king of England (uncrowned), 1483

Edward, prince of Wales and the son of EDWARD IV, was in Ludlow when his father died. While traveling to LONDON he was apprehended by his uncle Richard, who had himself proclaimed Protector and had the coronation delayed, first until June and then until November. In this period, Richard challenged the legitimacy of the king’s sons and had himself declared King RICHARD III. The two princes (Edward and his younger brother Richard) were in the TOWER OF LONDON, where they were presumably murdered at Richard’s command. Two boys’ skeletons were discovered in the Tower in 1674; exhumed in 1933, the remains could not be positively identified.

Edward VI (1537–1553) king of England, 1547–1553

The son of HENRY VIII and Jane SEYMOUR (who died giving birth), Edward VI was raised by Protestant tutors and a REGENCY council. Both of these influences were primarily responsible for ENGLAND’s first decisive move into reformed the-

ology with the BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER (1549

and 1552) and the Articles of Religion (1553). The young king was once set to marry MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS (Treaty of Greenwich, 1543), but Anglo-Scottish warfare and French influence aborted that plan. By 1552 the king had become ill (smallpox and measles) and developed tuberculosis. He agreed to a plan to divert the succession from MARY I, his Catholic half-sister, to Lady Jane GREY, but that failed within weeks after his death.

Edward VII (1841–1910)

king of Great Britain and Ireland, 1901–1910

The son of Queen VICTORIA and Prince ALBERT, Edward VII was indolent and irresponsible in his early years. His overlong apprenticeship (he came to the throne at the age of 60), which included some romance and misbehavior, also schooled the king in public affairs and international diplomacy. He was able to elevate public esteem for the position of the Crown after its loss of energy in the old age of his mother. He was also keenly interested in the reforms of the ARMY and NAVY, where some find his influence important. The true test of his kingship could have come in the multiple crises of 1910—the

reform of the HOUSE OF LORDS, IRISH HOME RULE,

and the unrest among workers and women. He did not live to see their outcomes.

Edward VIII (1894–1972)

king of Great Britain and Ireland, 1936

The son of GEORGE V was created PRINCE OF WALES

in 1911. He served as a staff officer in WORLD WAR I, making an effort to be a popular and approachable prince. He was also credited with a sensitive concern for the poor during the GENERAL STRIKE of 1926 and later in the DEPRESSION. He traveled throughout the BRITISH EMPIRE and was a successful emissary for the MONARCHY. His personal life was less successful. His affair with and desire to marry Wallis Simpson, a twice-divorced American whom he had known before her second divorce, shocked the government and the court. Edward was forced to abdicate in favor of his

brother, who took the throne as GEORGE VI and gave Edward the title of Duke of Windsor.

See also ABDICATION CRISIS.

gave special priority to the Roman Catholic church, and it declared the national territory to be “the whole island of Ireland.”

Egypt

Egypt was under Ottoman Turkish rule when Napoleon’s army was defeated there by a combined British and native force (1801). Throughout the 19th century, as Turkish power waned, the European states became increasingly involved in Egypt’s fate. The French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps led the construction of a canal across the Suez isthmus (1869), which transformed the country’s strategic position. At the same time, this put European bankers in the forefront of local affairs. British involvement took a large step in 1875 when Benjamin DISRAELI purchased a bloc of SUEZ CANAL shares. In 1882 a rebellion was triggered by this European interference, leading only to greater control, and de facto British rule. A formal British PROTECTORATE was announced in 1914, but another rebellion broke out in 1919. The protectorate was terminated in 1922, and the last elements of British control were ended by treaty in 1936. During WORLD WAR II, Egypt was nominally neutral but gave support to the allies. After the rise of a nationalist movement in the 1950s and Egyptian seizure of the canal, Britain launched an invasion (with French support). The Egyptian government of Col. Nasser retaliated by sinking ships in the canal, and widespread international hostility forced the Anglo-French force to be withdrawn.

See also ABOUKIR BAY; ALAMEIN, BATTLE OF EL;

ALEXANDER, HAROLD, EARL ALEXANDER OF TUNIS;

CROMER, EVELYN BARING, EARL OF; EDEN, ANTHONY;

NELSON, HORATIO, VISCOUNT.

Eire

The name of the IRISH REPUBLIC, established in the constitution of 1937. The office of governorgeneral was abolished, replaced by an elected president. Real political power resided in the office of prime minister (Taoiseach) and in the Irish parliament (Oireachtas). This constitution

eisteddfodau

Meetings of bards (minstrels, poets, and chroniclers) were traditionally held at the seat of Welsh princes, at least from the 12th century but probably much earlier. The practice declined in the 17th century, but there was a Celtic revival from the late 18th century (Cymmrodorion Society, 1751; Gwynnedigion Society, 1771). The meetings became national in 1819, and a National Eisteddfod Association was formed in 1880. There are now annual national meetings as well as local and regional ones.

Eldon, John Scott, earl of (1751–1838) lord chancellor

The son of a merchant, Lord Eldon studied law and rose, via politics, to the pinnacle of his profession. A MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from 1783, he became solicitor general and attorney general during the period of intense political unrest connected with the French Revolution (1788–99). He was the prosecutor in the famous treason trial of Thomas HARDY, in which the jury voted for acquittal (1794). He was made chief justice of the

Court of COMMON PLEAS in 1799 and LORD CHAN-

CELLOR in 1801, serving in that post until 1827. With such a lengthy tenure on the eve of an era of reform, he was bound to be the target of political enemies who saw him as the embodiment of dilatory and corrupt judicial practices. This judgment seems to be off the mark, as the delays of CHANCERY proceedings were hardly his invention. A brilliant jurist, his reputation also suffered from his opposition to constitutional reform.

Elgar, Sir Edward (1857–1934) composer

Elgar’s father kept a music shop in Worcestershire, Elgar himself was a self-taught musician who for much of his early career taught and

conducted in the local area. He went on to become the leading English composer of the early 20th century, his romantic compositions, both orchestral and choral, stand out. His first major work, Enigma Variations (1899), and his setting for the poem of Cardinal Newman, The Dream of Gerontius (1900), are on a par with his much-admired Pomp and Circumstance marches (1901–07). He was granted a knighthood in 1904 and the Order of Merit in 1911. He became Master of the King’s Music in 1924.

Elgin, Thomas Bruce, seventh earl of

(1766–1841)

Lord Elgin is remembered for the collection of marble sculptures, including parts of the frieze of the Parthenon, that he brought from Greece in 1812 and sold to the BRITISH MUSEUM in 1816. Defenders of his actions point out that Greece was then under Turkish rule, and the safety and preservation of the marbles were by no means guaranteed. Others argue that the pleas of Greek governments for their repatriation should be heeded. They are still on display in the British Museum.

Eliot, George (1819–1880)

(Mary Ann Evans) novelist

George Eliot was born Mary Ann Evans into a family of EVANGELICAL Christians, but she was fascinated with the philosophy of positivism and became affiliated with a group of thinkers who included G. H. Lewes. Her liaison with the married Lewes was part of the reason she adopted a male pseudonym when she began to publish the novels on which her fame rests. These include

Adam Bede (1859), The Mill on the Floss (1860), Silas Marner (1861), and Middlemarch (1872).

Eliot, Sir John (1592–1632) politician

A MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from 1614, Eliot was at first a supporter of the royal court. He turned

against the duke of BUCKINGHAM when the duke was impeached, and he was imprisoned. He refused to pay the FORCED LOAN to the king in 1627 and was imprisoned again. He supported

the PETITION OF RIGHT, and in the HOUSE OF COM-

MONS in 1629 he led the attacks on ARMINIAN policies and arbitrary taxation. He held the SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE in his chair so that debate could not be stopped, and once again he was sent to the TOWER OF LONDON, this time for the rest of his life. While there he composed a book on royal authority, which his political acts had done so much to undermine.

Eliot, T(homas) S(tearns) (1888–1965) poet, playwright

Born in St. Louis, T. S. Eliot studied at Harvard, the Sorbonne, and OXFORD UNIVERSITY. His first major poetic work was The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (1915). His reputation was secured with the publication of The Waste Land in 1922. Some of his later poems (The Hollow Men, The Journey of the Magi, Ash Wednesday) were signposts of his religious journey, but he also adapted his art to the stage, notably with Murder in the Catheral (1935) and The Cocktail Party (1950). He was the author of many important critical essays and books and winner of the Order of Merit and the Nobel Prize in literature. He also wrote a collection of children’s verse, Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats (1939), which was adapted for the musical Cats in 1981.

Elizabeth I (1533–1603)

queen of England and Ireland, 1558–1603

The daughter of HENRY VIII and Anne BOLEYN, Elizabeth I was briefly the first in the line of royal succession, until her mother was executed and she was declared illegitimate (1536). Her half-brother EDWARD VI was born the next year, and an act of succession in 1543 restored her legitimacy and placed her in line after Edward and her half-sister MARY I. When Edward was dying, he agreed to the accession of Lady Jane GREY, bypassing both Mary and Elizabeth. Mary’s