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go to war. The TORY element vowed their nonresistance to James, while the WHIGS actively pushed for his exclusion. Leaders of both would eventually invite William of Orange to replace James II in 1688; he became WILLIAM III.

excommunication

Removal by the church from the community of the faithful; persons declared excommunicate would be named in a WRIT issued to the SHERIFF for their arrest. The formal processes were abandoned in SCOTLAND in 1690 and in ENGLAND in 1813. The Roman Catholic church in IRELAND continues to have provision for excommunication, though it is seldom used.

extradition

The return of accused persons from one jurisdiction to another in which charges are pending.

There were exchanges of criminal suspects between ENGLAND and SCOTLAND as early as the 12th century. There was a treaty between the United States and GREAT BRITAIN in 1794, and a major series of treaties involving Britain and European countries began in the 1840s. The early agreements were ineffective, and legislation of the 1870s and later treaties made the process more efficient. A person charged with political offenses is ordinarily exempt from extradition.

eyre

A circuit of courts which was attended by the justices of the royal court. The General Eyre probably dates from the reign of Henry I in the 12th century. The judges had very wide powers, in effect taking over a local court and holding the session in the king’s name. This was superseded by the ASSIZE circuits in the 14th century.

Fabian Society

A group of intellectuals founded this organization in 1884 to pursue gradual socialist reform. They took their name from the Roman general Quintus Fabius, known for his cautious tactics in warfare. The society’s early leaders—Sidney and Beatrice WEBB, George Bernard SHAW, and H. G. WELLS—fashioned programs and policies that were influential in the formative years of the LABOUR PARTY. The Fabian Society published essays, sponsored lectures and meetings, and became a continuing source of information and ideas for the party.

factory acts

The earliest and most influential form of legislative intervention, these were child-labor laws that expanded into general regulations for health, safety, and employment practices for a widening number of industries. The unsystematic process began in 1802 with the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act, which applied to PARISH apprentices, i.e., pauper children employed by factory owners. Their hours were limited, and they were to receive schooling. In 1819 an act applied limits to the working hours of all children and prohibited those under age nine from working in cotton mills. But it was only in 1833 that a factory act provided for inspectors and thus raised hope of better enforcement. It restated the limits of earlier acts and set limits for hours per week: children under age 13 could not work more than a 48-hour week, those ages 13–18 no more than 68 hours. This act was partly the result of the “ten hours movement,” an ongoing reform effort which produced further

acts in 1844, 1850, and after. The limits on hours were gradually extended to women, and much later to all workers. At the same time, added regulations were made to improve safety and health in the workplace.

Fairfax, Sir Thomas (1612–1671) general

Fairfax attended St. John’s, CAMBRIDGE UNIVER- SITY, and Grays Inn (see INNS OF COURT). He fought for CHARLES I in the Netherlands and against SCOTLAND (1640), but he chose to serve as a parliamentary commander in 1642. During the CIVIL WAR he was one of the commanders at MARSTON MOOR, and he was made the lord general of the NEW MODEL ARMY, which he led to victory at NASEBY in June 1645. He was opposed to the capture of the king, tried to suppress the

LEVELLERS, and urged PARLIAMENT to pay the

arrears due to the ARMY. When nominated to serve on the HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE, which tried the king, he refused. Made commander in chief in 1649, he resisted the planned invasion of Scotland and resigned in 1650. He took little part in the later political events of the revolution, but he was one of the leaders who was sent to

arrange the RESTORATION of CHARLES II.

Famine See IRISH FAMINE.

Fashoda

In 1898 a French expedition went to the fort at Fashoda on the White Nile, presumably to try to oust the British from the SUDAN. The crisis

appeared to threaten war between the countries, but, weakened by the Dreyfus case and unable to rely on Russia for support, the French renounced their claim. This settlement was the prelude to the ENTENTE between Britain and France in 1904.

Fawcett, Dame Millicent (1847–1929) suffragist

The younger sister of Elizabeth Garrett ANDER- SON, Fawcett was the wife and secretary of Henry Fawcett, a blind MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT. She used her access and information to campaign for issues such as university EDUCATION and property rights for women. But her main cause was votes for women, and she became the president of the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies in 1897. She opposed the militant tactics that came into use over the next decade, and she was often a supporter of conservative political views. Her personal account of the suffrage campaign is in her memoir, What I Remember (1924).

Fawkes, Guy (1570–1606) conspirator

From a Protestant family, Fawkes converted to the Catholic faith and fought with Spanish forces in the Netherlands (1593). In 1605 he conspired with a number of disaffected Catholics in the GUNPOWDER PLOT to blow up the houses of PARLIAMENT while the king and the members were in session. He was to light the fuse, but an informer notified the authorities, and he was taken captive in the cellar beneath the HOUSE OF LORDS. He was subsequently tortured and executed. On November 5 every year, Fawkes’s fate is celebrated by fireworks, bonfires, and the burning of his effigy.

Fenian Brotherhood

A secret society, organized in cells, founded in 1858 by James Stephens, a former member of

YOUNG IRELAND and a rebel in 1848. The organization named itself after legendary Irish warriors, and it sought the establishment of an IRISH REPUBLIC. The Brotherhood’s supporters were on both sides of the Atlantic, and it was responsible for an abortive invasion of CANADA and a failed uprising in IRELAND in 1867. The sequel to the latter event was a raid on a police van in Manchester to rescue two Fenians, in which a policeman was shot. There was also an explosion at LONDON’s Clerkenwell Prison in another rescue attempt that killed 20 people. These events did dramatize the Irish “question” but probably did not gain support for the republicans. The Fenians were reconstituted as the Irish Republican Brotherhood in 1873.

feudalism

The system of LAND tenure in medieval Europe, in which a vassal held land (a fief, from the Latin feodum) from a lord in return for military service and other duties. Once thought to be a Norman import (1066), it now seems to have been a much more varied and widespread phenomenon. Feudal lordship in ENGLAND was centered on the king, whose tenants-in-chief were the main vassals in a complex hierarchy. The feudal lord exercised judicial authority and customary rights, which created conflict with royal power. Assertion of royal authority was one of the corrosive forces working on feudalism, as in the growth of royal courts and jurisdictions from the 12th century and the laws of Edward I, which barred further feudal lordships in the 13th century. The other element of the system was paid military service, which grew as an alternative to traditional vassalage, especially in the 14th century and after. This process was accelerated by the increasing cost of armor, weapons, and fortifications. Feudal arrangements across the British Isles varied, with Scottish vassals retaining much more in the way of hereditary jurisdictions, and Welsh and Irish lords generally evading the control of a VICEROY or governor.

Fielding, Henry (1701–1754) author, magistrate

Born in Somerset, the son of an army officer, Fielding attended Eton. At age 19 he tried to elope with an heiress, and when that failed, he took up writing for the stage. His satires provoked the government to pass a Licensing Act, for theatrical productions, in 1737. He read for the bar, became a BARRISTER in 1740, and was a prolific journalist. His career as a novelist seems to have been a reaction to the work of Samuel Richardson, author of the epistolary novel Pamela. Fielding’s novels included Joseph Andrews (1742), Tom Jones (1749), and Amelia (1751). He had practiced on the western ASSIZE circuit, and in 1748 he was appointed as a MAGISTRATE in Westminster, where he was noted for his aggressive efforts to fight crime and disorder (see BOW STREET RUNNERS).

Fifth Monarchy Men

A millenarian sect inspired by the execution of CHARLES I into a literal interpretation of the Book of Daniel. The Fifth Monarchy Men believed that the reign of Christ was to begin and would last for a thousand years, and it was their duty to purge the corrupt elements of government to pave the way. One of their leaders, Thomas Venner, led two uprisings (1653, 1661) before he was captured and executed.

Filmer, Sir Robert (unknown–1653) political theorist

Born into a GENTRY family, Filmer went to Trinity College, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. Knighted by CHARLES I, he was a staunch royalist who lost much property and was imprisoned during the CIVIL WAR. He was the author of important works defending traditional ideas. In The Freeholder’s Grand Inquest (1648) he held that PARLIAMENTS and laws owed their origin to royal authority. At the height of the EXCLUSION crisis his works were reprinted, along with Patriarcha, or the Natural Power of Kings Asserted, which had not been previously published. That work traced the rights of

kings from Adam, and it was useful to the TORY Party in disputing the political theories of Thomas HOBBES and John LOCKE.

Finch, Daniel See NOTTINGHAM, DANIEL

FINCH, EARL OF.

Finch, Heneage See NOTTINGHAM, HENEAGE

FINCH, EARL OF.

Finch, Sir John (1584–1660) judge

Finch was the SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE of Commons in 1629 who attempted to adjourn the meeting only to be held in his chair by Sir John ELIOT and others so that debate (and attacks on the Crown) could continue. He was later made chief justice of the Court of COMMON PLEAS, where he made the important judgment favoring the king in the SHIP MONEY case (1637). He was impeached by PARLIAMENT in 1640, went into exile, and returned at the RESTORATION.

Fire of London

A small fire in a baker’s shop in Pudding Lane was fanned by high winds, spreading across the City of LONDON’s closely packed wooden structures (September 2–6, 1666). Over 13,000 buildings were destroyed, including the Guildhall, ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, and 87 parish churches. Royal commissioners were appointed to oversee the rebuilding of the city. The old street plan was kept, but new construction had to meet government specifications, including the use of brick instead of wood.

Fisher, John Arbuthnot Fisher, first baron (1841–1920)

admiral

Commander of the Mediterranean fleet from 1899 to 1902, Fisher was promoted to first sea

lord in 1904 and began a remarkable series of reforms in administration, ship construction, and tactics. He supervised the building of the DREADNOUGHT and a new class of battle cruisers, which gave GREAT BRITAIN a brief advantage in the naval arms race with Germany. He retired in 1910, but was called back to duty by Winston CHURCHILL at the start of WORLD WAR I in 1914. He helped to spur wartime naval construction, but he proved to be a difficult colleague for Churchill. When they fell out over the conduct of the GALLIPOLI campaign, Fisher resigned and brought Churchill down as well.

Fisher, St. John (1469–1535) bishop

Born in Yorkshire, the son of a mercer, Fisher attended the cathedral school in York and then Michaelhouse College, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. He later became a fellow and then master of the college at age 28. A chaplain to lady Margaret BEAUFORT and a friend of Erasmus, he became BISHOP of Rochester in 1504. He wrote in support of HENRY VIII’s anti-Lutheran writings in the 1520s, but he vigorously opposed the king’s arguments for a divorce, and he defended the church against the royal takeover in 1532. After the ROYAL SUPREMACY was declared and the royal succession was altered, Fisher refused to take the oath (1534), and he was arrested and executed (1535). He was canonized in 1935.

Fitzgerald, earls of Desmond

1.James Fitzjohn Fitzgerald (d. 1558), 14th earl, assumed the title in 1536. He allied with rebels but submitted to the lord deputy, Sir Anthony ST. LEGER, in 1540. Created lord treasurer, he served the Crown through the reign of MARY I.

2.Gerald Fitzjames (1533–1583), 15th earl, took the title in 1558, was sent to the TOWER OF LONDON in 1567, later conspired against ELIZABETH I, and in 1579 began the DESMOND

REBELLION. He was captured and executed, and his head was displayed on Tower Bridge.

3.James (1570–1601), 16th earl, called “the Queen’s earl of Desmond,” was surrendered (as a hostage) by his mother in 1579, kept in the Tower for many years, and taken to Munster in 1600 to attempt to restore the allegiance of the family’s followers. When this failed, he was returned to LONDON and died soon after.

Fitzgerald, earls of Kildare

1.Gerald (1457–1513), eighth earl, was a deputy to the LORD LIEUTENANT (who often was not in residence) and effective ruler of Ireland. He supported Lambert SIMNEL and perhaps Perkin

WARBECK, but was pardoned by HENRY VII, possibly because he was the most useful governor of the PALE.

2.Gerald (1487–1534), ninth earl, known in Ireland as “Garrett Og” (Gerald the younger), was held hostage in England (1497–1503) during his father’s escapades. HENRY VIII made him deputy. He was recalled on several occasions and imprisoned in the TOWER OF LON-

DON. On the last of these, in 1534, his son Thomas led an uprising.

3.Thomas (1513–1537), 10th earl (alias “Silken Thomas”), had been made deputy when his father was imprisoned in 1534. He was told that his father had been executed, and that triggered a revolt. In that uprising John Allen, the ARCHBISHOP of DUBLIN, was murdered. When Thomas was defeated and captured, he was promised a pardon, but in 1537 he and five of his uncles were executed. This ended the power of the house of Kildare.

Fitzgerald, Lord Edward (1763–1798)

Irish nationalist

Son of the duke of Leinster, Fitzgerald was raised in a wealthy Anglo-Irish family. After serving in the American Revolution and in CANADA (where he lived with an Indian tribe), he sat in the Irish House of Commons from 1783. Influenced both by his Whiggish family background and by a radical admiration for

France, he joined the UNITED IRISHMEN in 1796. As one of the leaders of that organization, he was the target of attempted arrests in early 1798. Wounded, he died in prison just as outbreaks of violence signaled the beginning of the

IRISH REBELLION of 1798.

FitzRoy, Henry (1519–1536) son of Henry VIII

The illegitimate son of HENRY VIII by Elizabeth Blount, FitzRoy was seen by many as the likely successor to the king. Among his various honors he was created duke of Richmond and appointed lord high admiral in 1525 and LORD LIEU- TENANT of IRELAND in 1529. Acts of succession had declared his sisters (MARY I and ELIZABETH I) illegitimate, but the young duke died of consumption a year before EDWARD VI was born.

Five Knights’ Case

When CHARLES I attempted to collect a FORCED LOAN in 1627, he was met with widespread resistance among the GENTRY, who recognized that he was trying to circumvent PARLIAMENT. Five gentlemen were arrested; they applied for a WRIT of HABEAS CORPUS, but the court denied their request. The court did not clearly decide the king’s power to collect the loan, so the contested issue was addressed in the PETITION OF RIGHT in 1628. That statement said taxes could not be levied without parliamentary consent.

Fleming, Sir Alexander (1881–1955) physician, researcher

Son of a farmer from Ayrshire, Fleming trained for a medical career at St. Mary’s Hospital, LON- DON. He worked in the hospital’s inoculation department studying the treatment of syphilis. During WORLD WAR I he studied the infections of battlefield wounds, trying to learn why antiseptic methods were unsuccessful. After the war he discovered natural enzymes that fought bacteria. In 1928 he found that mold growing in a culture dish had killed the surrounding bacteria. His dis-

covery was only exploited years later when Howard Florey and Ernst Chain were able to purify the drug penicillin. The three men shared the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1945.

Fletcher, Andrew (1655–1716) politician

Known as Fletcher of Saltoun, he was the son of Robert Fletcher of Salton in East Lothian, SCOT- LAND. As a commissioner in the convention of estates (summoned, in emergencies, in lieu of Parliament) he opposed STUART policy, became an adviser to James Scott, the duke of Monmouth, but left the duke’s ill-fated expedition and went to the continent. He returned to Scotland at the GLORIOUS REVOLUTION and regained his estates. He became a vocal supporter of Scottish institutions and independence, and he fiercely opposed the plan for an act of UNION. He was briefly imprisoned in LONDON in 1708, as it was thought that he was implicated in French invasion plans.

flight of the earls (1607)

In 1607 Rory O’DONNELL, earl of Tyrconnel, and Hugh O’NEILL, earl of Tyrone, were fearful of being arrested by the English, as the most prominent Catholic leaders in Ulster. The territory had been occupied, a new administration had been installed, and a large number of English and Scottish settlers were expected to be introduced. The two earls fled to the continent, ultimately to Rome, and their departure left the native Irish without any traditional leaders, thus facilitating the PLANTATION of the new colonists.

Flodden, Battle of (1513)

JAMES IV of SCOTLAND renounced his alliance with ENGLAND, invaded while HENRY VIII was campaigning in France, and suffered a resounding defeat. Though each side had roughly equal forces, England only lost about 1,500, while Scotland lost 10,000, including the king himself and many of the Scottish nobility.