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1772 he was appointed governor of BENGAL and the next year he became the first governorgeneral of INDIA. He was responsible for many administrative and legal reforms, and he also dealt harshly with a number of enemies. On his return to ENGLAND he faced charges of murder and extortion, and he was impeached in 1788. The trial lasted until 1795, when he was acquitted, but by then he was impoverished, though he was made a privy councillor and received other honors.

Hawking, Stephen (1942– ) physicist

An outstanding figure in theoretical physics, Hawking is afflicted with motor neuron disease and uses a voice synthesizer. His project has been to join quantum mechanics and relativity theory to explain “black holes” and the “big bang.” His major work was The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time, with G. F. R. Ellis (1973). A shorter book, A Brief History of Time (1988), was an international best-seller.

Hawkins, Sir John (1532–1595) sailor

A merchant and shipowner, Hawkins began the English SLAVE TRADE (1562), violating the laws of Spain which barred foreigners from trade in their

empire. Later a MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT and a

NAVY official, he was also an efficient and gallant commander in the fleet that defeated the Spanish ARMADA. He died on an expedition to the

WEST INDIES.

Hazlitt, William (1778–1830) essayist

Born in Maidstone, the son of an Irish Unitarian minister, Hazlitt trained first for the ministry and then tried his hand as a painter. He found his true vocation as a writer—critic, travel writer, and biographer. He was theatre critic for The Times in 1816. He also wrote Characters of Shakespeare’s Plays (1817), Lectures on English Poets

(1818), English Comic Writers (1819), and Dramatic Literature of the Age of Elizabeth (1821).

Heath, Sir Edward (1916– ) prime minister, 1970–1974

Born into a lower-middle-class family with no political background, Heath found his calling when he became president of the Union at

OXFORD UNIVERSITY. He entered the HOUSE OF

COMMONS in 1950 and became chief WHIP by 1955. He was a TORY who supported social reform and advocated European unity. In 1965 he was elected to the CONSERVATIVE PARTY leadership, the first such election in the party’s history. He won the general election of 1970 but immediately faced a major crisis in NORTHERN IRELAND, a serious clash with the miners union, and the OPEC oil embargo of 1973. The main achievement of his government was the entry into the

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY in 1973, al-

though this was an issue on which there were divisions in both major parties. The Conservatives lost two general elections in 1974, and in 1975 Heath was ousted as leader and replaced by Margaret THATCHER.

Henderson, Arthur (1863–1935)

Labour politician

Born in Glasgow and raised in poverty, Henderson was nine years old when his father, a laborer, died. An apprentice at age 12, he converted to METHODISM, which was a powerful force in his career. Elected to PARLIAMENT in 1903 as a candidate of the Labour Representation Committee, he was one of the organizers of the first parliamentary LABOUR PARTY, serving as chief WHIP (1906–14) and as party secretary (1911–34). He joined Herbert ASQUITH’s government in 1915 and became a member of the War Cabinet in 1916. He helped to draft the constitution of the Labour Party in 1918, and he served as foreign secretary in the Labour government of 1929–31. He was chairman of the World Disarmament Conference under the auspices of the LEAGUE OF

NATIONS in 1932.

Henry IV (1367–1413) king of England, 1399–1413

Known as Henry Bolingbroke, he was banished by RICHARD II in 1398. The next year, when Henry’s father, John of Gaunt, died, the king seized his estates. In order to reclaim his patrimony, Bolingbroke returned to England, defeated Richard, and took the throne as Henry IV. The new reign was troubled with rebellions and financial weakness. The revolt of Owen GLENDO- WER in WALES, aided by the Percys of Northumberland (former supporters of Henry), caused intermittent fighting for nearly a decade. The king’s declining health and his son Henry’s ambition marked his last years.

Henry V (1387–1422) king of England, 1413–1422

The son of HENRY IV became PRINCE OF WALES in

1400, and he was deeply involved in the warfare which kept that principality in the control of the Crown. He gained experience in the royal council to the point where he may have tried to exercise too much authority in his father’s last years. After his coronation as Henry V, he planned and carried out an impressive invasion of France in order to reassert the claims to that throne. He captured the port of Harfleur and won the famous victory of AGINCOURT in 1415. He had control of the north of France, and after conquering Normandy in 1419, he gained his objective in the Treaty of TROYES in 1420: he was recognized as heir to the French throne, and he married the daughter of King Charles VI of France, Catherine of Valois. However, soon after, still campaigning, he fell victim to dysentery and died. A heroic figure to the English, he promoted the use of the native language, the worship of English saints, and the exalting of national identity.

Henry VI (1421–1471)

king of England, 1422–1461, 1470–1471

The infant son of HENRY V and Catherine of Valois became king of ENGLAND at the age of nine

months upon his father’s death. When his maternal grandfather died a month later, he was proclaimed king of France. Henry VI would manage to lose both crowns in the course of a bizarre half-century. He had little of the martial or governing skills of his father, he was beset by conflicts between his advisers, and he suffered from bouts of insanity. His first major defeat was in France, where his coronation in 1431 was no match for the appearance of the Maid of Orleans, Joan of Arc, who inspired a French revival. Meanwhile the factions in his court feuded over policy and patronage and squandered England’s position on the continent. By 1453 they had lost Normandy and Aquitaine, and the HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR was over. At this low point, the king lost his sanity, and Richard, duke of YORK, asserted a claim to be lord protector. He was soon ousted, beginning the long-running duel known as the Wars of the ROSES (1455–71, 1485). After the Yorkist victory in 1461, Henry was deposed by EDWARD IV, was restored briefly in 1470, and captured in 1471 and murdered.

Henry VII (1457–1509) king of England, 1485–1509

Henry TUDOR was the son of Edmund, earl of Richmond, and Margaret BEAUFORT. He spent part of his early life in WALES, the land of his father, and part in exile in France. His weak claim to the throne, through his mother’s descent from EDWARD III, was made stronger by the treachery of RICHARD III and the elimination of eligible royal heirs. He led a small force from France to Wales in 1485, and upon entering ENGLAND he defeated Richard at the Battle of BOSWORTH and seized the Crown. He had to put down pretenders to his title (Lambert SIMNEL and Perkin WARBECK), but by the end of the century, with two male heirs of his own, he had established the Tudor family on the English throne. Henry was an able and efficient ruler, shrewd in finance and diplomacy. He married his eldest son to CATHERINE OF ARAGON, thus sealing an alliance with Spain, Europe’s strongest power. He brought the Welsh into a close alliance with England and married his

daughter Margaret to JAMES IV of SCOTLAND, thus bringing a union of BRITAIN closer than it had ever been. When his son Arthur died, he arranged for the Spanish marriage to be renewed by his second son, HENRY VIII. He also left an unprecedented surplus in the royal treasury.

Henry VIII (1491–1547)

king of England, 1509–1547; king of Ireland, 1541–1547

The second son of Henry TUDOR was a total contrast to his father: outgoing, brash, and energetic, he saw himself as a RENAISSANCE prince. He did fulfill his father’s wish that he marry his brother’s widow CATHERINE OF ARAGON, but he pursued costly and wasteful foreign adventures which HENRY VII would have deemed pointless. Henry saw ENGLAND as a rival to the powers of France and Spain, and he pursued policies designed to fulfill that image. He fought with France (1512), defeated a Scots invasion (1513), negotiated a treaty in 1518 that appeared to ratify England’s power, and made a sham alliance with France (1520). In much of this his trusted and able adviser was Thomas Cardinal WOLSEY. It was he who became the king’s agent in the next diplomatic enterprise: the quest for annulment of Henry’s marriage. As an experienced ecclesiastical politician, Wolsey should have been able to gain what many aristocrats often needed—a convenient clerical license to remarry. However, Catherine’s nephew, Charles V, was the Holy Roman Emperor, and his army was then occupying Rome. His presence made any papal action against Catherine unthinkable. This proved to be an insuperable obstacle for Wolsey, and thus he was dismissed (1529) and replaced by his secretary Thomas CROMWELL. The ENGLISH REFORMATION began as Henry pursued his romance with Anne BOLEYN, and he ordered the clergy in England to be brought under his firm control, so as to enforce the unilateral decision to divorce his wife.

Henry’s marital history became the most scandalous feature of his reign. Anne was his wife for only three years (1533–36) before she

was accused of adultery and executed. Jane SEY- MOUR (1537) bore him the son he so desperately wanted, but she died in childbirth. ANNE OF CLEVES (1540) proved to be unattractive and was rejected. Catherine HOWARD (1540–42) was also unfaithful and shortlived. Catherine PARR married Henry, was a comfort to him in his last years, and died in 1548, one year after him.

Henry’s three children all came to the throne: EDWARD VI (1547–53), MARY I (1553–58), and ELIZABETH I (1558–1603). Their religious differences emphasized the impact of the peculiar REFORMATION under their father. Henry was a loyal son of the church into the 1520s. He was not inclined to accept any reform theology beyond the assertion of his ROYAL SUPREMACY in the church in England. So he only reluctantly endorsed the issue of articles of religion, the translation of the scriptures, and the alteration of the liturgy. It was his son (and his advisers) who propelled the Protestant cause, his eldest daughter who tried to restore the Catholic faith and church government, and his second daughter who tried to strike some balance between royal government and Protestant belief.

Henry’s other achievement was to alter the form and power of royal government. Cromwell was one engineer of this transformation. The DISSOLUTION was one exercise of a royal administration becoming more comprehensive and centralized. The royal NAVY was in its early formative stage, and the conduct of PARLIAMENT was altered by the king’s decision to involve it in the creation of his supremacy. Finally, as the strongest ruler in the British Isles, Henry tried to cement English control over its neighbors. He succeeded in annexing WALES by statutes (1536, 1543) which brought it into the English parliamentary structure and introduced English laws. He planned a dynastic marriage between Edward and Mary of SCOTLAND (later MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS), which did not occur, though he invaded Scotland in an effort to enforce his will. He also had himself proclaimed king of IRELAND (1541) after a period of rebellion and reaction to his antipapal policies. Thus he advanced by force the policy pursued diplomatically by

HENRY VII, a policy which showed that England was ready to assert its primacy over the whole of the archipelago.

Hepburn, James See BOTHWELL, JAMES

HEPBURN, EARL OF.

Hertford, earl of See SOMERSET, EDWARD

SEYMOUR, EARL OF HERTFORD AND DUKE OF.

High Commission, ecclesiastical courts of

The power of the royal PREROGATIVE was used to issue COMMISSIONs to enforce clerical discipline in the 16th century. In 1559 this power was recognized in statute, and it was exercised in individual dioceses and in the provinces of CANTERBURY and York. The latter became regular courts, using secret proceedings, oaths ex officio (where one was compelled to answer), and no juries. Known as ecclesiastical courts of High Commission, they were denounced by common lawyers in the 17th century and abolished in 1641.

See also COURTS OF LAW; ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS.

High Court of Justice

The title of the combined courts created under the JUDICATURE ACT of 1873. The High Court of Justice included the courts of CHANCERY, COM-

MON PLEAS, KING’S BENCH, EXCHEQUER, ADMIRALTY,

probate, divorce, and the London court of bankruptcy. At first the court was arranged in several divisions, out of respect for tradition, but the court’s jurisdiction was unified, and each judge could act in any division. Together with the Court of APPEAL and the CROWN COURT, they constitute the Supreme Court of Judicature. Ironically, the court created by the army and the

RUMP PARLIAMENT which tried CHARLES I for trea-

son in January 1649 was also known as the High Court of Justice.

See also COURTS OF LAW.

High Court of Justiciary

The highest criminal court in SCOTLAND was formally established in 1672. It took over the work which had been done previously by judiciaries and irregularly appointed royal commissioners. The new court consisted of seven judges: the lord justice general, the lord justice clerk, and five lords of session. In 1830 the lord president of the Court of SESSION was designated to succeed the lord justice general, merging the two highest offices of the College of Justice. In 1887 a law provided that all lords of session would be lords commissioners of justiciary. The court has general criminal jurisdiction, and it hears criminal appeals. There is no appeal beyond this court in Scottish criminal law.

See also COURTS OF LAW.

Highland clearances

The clearances were evictions or forced removals of large numbers of the Gaelic-speaking population of the Scottish Highlands in the 18th and 19th centuries. This agrarian society had large estates that were leased to middlemen (tacksmen) who in turn collected rents from the poor farmworkers. In the decade before the AMERICAN REVOLUTION, large numbers of these workers immigrated to North America rather than pay high rents. A generation later, as sheep-farming spread widely, lowland farmers acquired large holdings and, particularly on the holdings of the countess of Sutherland in the far north, forced poor tenants to leave their land, resettling them on small holdings (crofts) on the coast, where they eked out a living gathering kelp (seaweed) and raising a few animals. In the later 19th century more Highland estates were cleared to open land for deer hunting.

See also CROFTER, HIGHLANDS.

Highlands

Geographically the Highlands occupy the area west of the line connecting the Clyde estuary and the town of Stonehaven on the east coast of SCOTLAND. Historically the interior portion of that

zone, plus the Hebrides, constituted a GAELIC cultural and linguistic community, with political and social structures provided by CLANs into the 18th century. After the rebellion of the JACOBITES in 1745, acts were passed ordering the disarming of the clans, prohibiting the wearing of clan tartans, and abolishing old heritable jurisdictions. Largescale forfeiture of estates and transformation of LAND use uprooted the old society. In the last quarter of the century, with higher rents and consolidation of holdings, many people were evicted or chose to emigrate. These “clearances” continued into the 19th century, with the extension of sheep farming and large hunting estates. All of these movements contributed to the growth of the CROFTER population.

See also CULLODEN, BATTLE OF; FORBES, DUN-

CAN; HIGHLAND CLEARANCES; SHERIFF.

Hill, Octavia (1838–1912) reformer

The daughter of a banker who lost his fortune in the crash of 1840, Hill worked in a shop and developed business skills. She joined with Christian Socialists to create better housing for the poor. With a loan from John RUSKIN she purchased slum properties in LONDON, and with close supervision and reinvested income, she created some 6,000 homes. She also campaigned for preservation of open space, and to that end she cofounded the NATIONAL TRUST in 1895.

Hill, Sir Rowland (1795–1879) inventor of the penny post

The son of a Unitarian schoolmaster in Birmingham, Hill and his brothers created and taught a modern curriculum in a school with small, separate classes. An inventor and administrator, he proposed a postal system based on prepayment at standard rates, with the use of adhesive stamps. His system was implemented in 1840, and he was put in charge, but he was removed from office because of disputes with his staff. He returned in 1846 as secretary to the postmaster general, in which post he remained until 1864.

Hillary, Sir Edmund (1919–1995) mountaineer

Born in NEW ZEALAND and experienced in climbing in the Himalayas, Hillary was part of a 1953 expedition to climb Mt. Everest. He and Sherpa Tenzing were selected to make the final stage of the climb, becoming the first men to ascend the world’s highest mountain.

Hitchcock, Alfred (1899–1980) film director

Born in LONDON, Hitchcock worked in many jobs in film before becoming a director. He made the first British talking picture, Blackmail, in 1929. His trademark was the thriller, and some early examples were The Man Who Knew Too Much

Alfred Hitchcock (Hulton/Archive)

(1934) and The 39 Steps (1935). He went to the United States in 1939 under contract with David O. Selznick. His early American films included

Rebecca (1940), Shadow of a Doubt (1942), and

Strangers on a Train (1951). The height of his career came with Rear Window and To Catch a Thief (both 1954), Vertigo (1957), North by Northwest (1959), and Psycho (1960).

Hoadly, Benjamin (1676–1761) churchman

The son of a schoolmaster, Hoadly became a Fellow of Catherine Hall, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. One of the more outspoken low-church divines of the early 18th century, he was attacked by Francis ATTERBURY for advocating the right to resist rulers. Hoadly was appointed a royal chaplain and later made BISHOP of Bangor. His view that private conscience was more powerful than episcopal authority so incensed the high-church party that it caused furious debate in the church CONVOCATION, leading to the dismissal of that body. He went on to several other bishoprics (Hereford, Salisbury, and Winchester), having no trouble accepting the fruits of an established order which he belittled.

Hoare, Samuel John Gurney, See

TEMPLEWOOD, SAMUEL JOHN GURNEY HOARE,

FIRST VISCOUNT.

Hobbes, Thomas (1588–1679) philosopher

Born in Wiltshire, the son of a clergyman, Hobbes was educated at OXFORD UNIVERSITY. He traveled on the continent as a tutor to the future earl of Devonshire, William Cavendish. On his travels he met Galileo and Descartes. He was in exile in Paris during the CIVIL WAR (1640–1650). His famous Leviathan was published in London in 1651, in which he held that human nature was essentially brutal, and the only security could be found in granting absolute power to a

governor. He was thus not surprised by the events of the INTERREGNUM. After returning to ENGLAND in 1651, Hobbes remained and was given a royal pension after the RESTORATION.

Hobhouse, John Cam (1786–1869) politician, writer

Hobhouse was a radical, friend and traveling com-

panion of Lord BYRON, and MEMBER OF PARLIA-

MENT from 1820 to 1851. He was secretary at war (1832), chief secretary of IRELAND (1833), and president of the India Board (1835–41), which maintained liaison between the government and the EAST INDIA COMPANY. He is credited with coining the phrase “His Majesty’s Loyal Opposition.” He wrote Recollections of a Long Life (1865).

Hobson, John Atkinson (1858–1940) economist

Hobson’s father was a newspaper editor in Derby. He studied at OXFORD UNIVERSITY and then taught school, but inherited wealth enabled him to become a full-time writer. His work was well ahead of its time. In 1889 he wrote The Physiology of Industry, with A. F. Mummery. This work tried to undermine LAISSEZ FAIRE economics by pointing to tendencies to overproduction and unemployment. His further argument was that industrial states compensated for their economic weaknesses by aggressive imperial schemes. This analysis was presented in his Imperialism: A Study (1902).

Hogarth, William (1697–1764) artist

Hogarth’s family was from the north of ENGLAND, but he was raised in poor circumstances in LON- DON, and his early life gave intense feeling to his work. He learned engraving and produced many of his own satirical and moral paintings, which works were extremely influential. His Harlot’s Progress (1732), A Rake’s Progress (1733–35), and

Marriage a la Mode (1743–45) were biting com-