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named Mohammed Ahmed). He was killed two days before a relief force arrived, much to the embarrassment of William GLADSTONE’s government.

Gordon, George Hamilton See ABERDEEN,

GEORGE HAMILTON-GORDON, EARL OF.

Gordon Riots (1780)

Lord George Gordon (1751–93) was a Scottish MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT who became president of the Protestant Association, a group violently opposed to the concessions to Catholics that had been initiated in 1778. He led a large crowd presenting a petition to PARLIAMENT on June 2, 1780, and the mayhem that followed resulted in a week of rioting and looting. At first Catholic chapels were attacked, and Catholic homes were destroyed. Breweries, taverns, and distilleries became targets, and a more sinister development saw the release of inmates from prisons. The ARMY was called in, several hundred deaths resulted, and some 59 rioters were convicted, but not Gordon, who was acquitted of high treason.

Government of Ireland Act (1920)

The movement for IRISH HOME RULE had agitated Irish and British politics for more than 30 years. The debate was centered on the means of granting some form of autonomy to IRELAND within the UNITED KINGDOM. Any such step frightened

the PROTESTANT majority in NORTHERN IRELAND, as

it would put power in the hands of the overall CATHOLIC majority in Ireland. Successive Home Rule bills had failed in 1886, 1892, and 1912. But the last bill finally passed in 1914, just as war broke out in Europe. The war was an excuse to put the measure aside temporarily. The 1914 bill had provided for two governments: one for the six northeastern counties, the other for the 26 counties of the south and west. Limited powers were delegated to each of these governments, and a council was created to deal with matters

pertaining to all of Ireland. The south rejected the 1914 act and accepted in its stead the ANGLO-

IRISH TREATY of 1921. Meanwhile, PARLIAMENT

passed the 1920 act, which restated the terms of 1914, enabling a separate parliament to be formed in the north and providing for the partition of Ireland. King GEORGE V went to Belfast to preside over the opening of the new parliament on June 23, 1921.

Graham, James See MONTROSE, JAMES GRA-

HAM, MARQUESS OF.

Graham, Sir James (1792–1861) politician

Graham entered PARLIAMENT in 1818 and held office under Charles GREY and Robert PEEL. He

supported CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION and parlia-

mentary reform. First lord of the ADMIRALTY in grey’s cabinet in 1830, he helped to draft the Great Reform bill. In the 1840s he served as home secretary during the CHARTIST MOVEMENT disturbances and helped Peel with repeal of the CORN LAWS. He was again at the admiralty (1852–1855) during the CRIMEAN WAR.

Graham of Claverhouse, John See

DUNDEE, JOHN GRAHAM, VISCOUNT.

grammar schools

Historically those schools teaching the rudiments of Latin were usually endowed for the education of future clerics and sometimes established by individuals or institutions. Some older foundations achieved special status as “public schools”— that is, they were of superior social standing if not academic prowess (Winchester, 1382; Eton, 1440; St. Paul’s, 1509; Westminster, 1560; Shrewsbury, 1552; Merchant Taylors’, 1561; Rugby, 1567; Harrow, 1571; Charterhouse, 1611). A royal commission was appointed to examine them in 1861, due to continued comments on their shortcom-

ings. During the 19th century a number of newer and more modern grammar schools were established to cater to a much larger and socially ambitious middle class. Schools had been encouraged to broaden curricula since an act of 1840, and they began to admit girls in 1870. A major turn came after the 1902 act, which called for locally supported secondary, or “grammar,” schools. This produced a large number of schools, many of which were merged into the newer “comprehensive” schools in the 1950s and 1960s.

See also EDUCATION.

grand jury

Originally a group of 12 called to report crimes and suspects to the justices in EYRE and later to the ASSIZE judges. The grand jury later came to number 23 persons, chosen from a panel named by the SHERIFF, and was the place where indictments were examined and approved for trial. It became redundant in the 19th century as MAG- ISTRATEs took over this function with pretrial hearings, and the grand jury was terminated in 1933.

Grand Remonstrance

In November 1641, with increasing tension between CHARLES I and PARLIAMENT, and with some faltering in the latter group, John PYM and other leaders prepared a summary indictment of the king’s actions. They demanded that his councillors be approved by Parliament, that the BISH- OPs’ authority be limited, and that the church be reformed. The Grand Remonstrance only passed by a small margin, the king rejected it, and the hostility between sides escalated further.

Grattan, Henry (1746–1820)

Irish politician

Trained in LAW, Grattan was elected to the Irish parliament in 1775 and was soon one of its leading speakers. He led the debates for Irish liberty at the time of the American Revolution. He suc-

ceeded in obtaining the repeal of POYNINGS’ LAWS and the DECLARATORY ACT OF 1766, which gave legislative independence to the Irish parliament (known commonly as “Grattan’s Parliament,” 1782–1800). He protested against the Act of UNION in 1800, but later served in the PARLIA- MENT of the UNITED KINGDOM, where he was an

advocate of CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION.

Graves, Robert Ranke (1895–1985) poet, critic

From an Anglo-Irish family, Graves studied at Charterhouse and at St. John’s College, CAM- BRIDGE UNIVERSITY. A prodigious author, he produced over 120 volumes of poetry, fiction, and criticism. Among his best-known works are his autobiography of the war years, Goodbye to All That (1929); his historical novels I, Claudius and Claudius the God (both 1934); his critical masterpiece The White Goddess: A Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth (1948); and his Collected Poems (1975). He held the position of professor of poetry at

OXFORD UNIVERSITY, 1961–66.

Great Britain

The term Great Britain applies to the largest island of the British Isles, sometimes in contrast to “Little Britain,” or Brittany. As a political term, it refers to the joint sovereign entity of

ENGLAND, WALES, and SCOTLAND. This only

became a political reality in 1603, with the accession of JAMES VI AND I to the English throne. The English PARLIAMENT was not inclined to accept the name then, but the king had it proclaimed and used in official documents and on the coinage. The name was recognized in the Act of UNION in 1707.

Great Exhibition (1851)

Prince ALBERT inspired the convening of this International Exhibition of the Industrial Works of All Nations, which served to display the primacy of English manufactures. The central

structure was the CRYSTAL PALACE in Hyde Park. There were tens of thousands of exhibits, and the event attracted over 6 million visitors. Profits from the exhibition went to acquire land for the future sites of the VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, Science Museum, Natural History Museum, the Albert Hall, the Royal College of Music, and the Imperial College of Science and Technology.

Great Famine See IRISH FAMINE.

Great Reform Act (or Bill) See REFORM

ACTS.

great seal

The symbol for authenticating royal orders. A great seal has been designed for each sovereign since Edward the Confessor. At the end of a reign, the old seal is broken as the new one is prepared. A round, double-sided metal casting, it is used to imprint the design in the melted wax appended to a document: a WRIT, a PROCLAMA- TION, a royal letter, or a treaty. The seal is kept by the LORD CHANCELLOR, and the use of the seal is directed by means of a WARRANT with the king’s or queen’s PRIVY SEAL or the SIGNET.

Greene, (Henry) Graham (1904–1991) novelist

Born in Berkhamstead, Greene studied at Balliol College, OXFORD UNIVERSITY. He worked as a journalist, and his early work included an account of his travel across Liberia, Journey Without Maps (1936); and a study of the church in Mexico in the 1930s, Lawless Roads (1939). A political reporter and film reviewer, Greene found ample material for his fiction in his daily work. His first success was the historical thriller The Man Within (1926). He found even more success with themes of crime and politics:

Brighton Rock (1938), The Power and the Glory

(1940), The Heart of the Matter (1948), The Third Man (1949), The Honorary Consul (1973), and

Monsignor Quixote (1982). He was also the author of nine movie scripts.

Grenville, George (1712–1770) prime minister, 1763–1765

Grenville was elected to PARLIAMENT in 1741, was a lord of the ADMIRALTY in 1744, and served in the government of his brother-in-law, William PITT. After Pitt’s resignation he remained as first lord of the admiralty. In 1763 he was picked as the successor to Lord BUTE as first lord

of the TREASURY, or PRIME MINISTER. But there

was a suspicion that Bute was still being consulted by GEORGE III, who disliked Grenville. Soon after the passage of the STAMP ACT (1765), Grenville was dismissed. His policies of more strict fiscal management were widely supported, but he lost power due to friction with the king.

Gresham, Thomas (1519–1579) financier

Gresham was a LONDON merchant who was engaged in the cloth trade and adept in international finance. He became ambassador to the Netherlands (1559) and helped arrange loans to the Crown from Flemish merchants. He established the ROYAL EXCHANGE in London in 1566; endowed Gresham College there (1575); and, having no children, gave his wealth to other charitable uses. He is often credited with “Gresham’s Law,” the saying that bad money drives out good.

Grey, Charles Grey, second earl

(1764–1845)

prime minister, 1830–1834

A WHIG political leader, Grey was an ally of Charles James FOX and a longtime supporter of parliamentary reform. He was a member of the

FRIENDS OF THE PEOPLE, and he introduced a FRAN-

CHISE reform bill in 1797. These early measures

were futile, as was the Whig opposition generally until the 1820s. When the duke of WELLINGTON refused to consider parliamentary reform in 1830, WILLIAM IV invited Grey to form a government. His first reform bill was defeated, and he called an election, convincing the king to create enough peers for it to pass the HOUSE OF LORDS. Under this threat, the REFORM ACT passed in 1832, as did measures for SCOTLAND and IRELAND. A uniform franchise was created, allowing householders with property worth £10 to vote and eliminating a large number of ROTTEN BOR-

OUGHs.

Grey, Sir Edward (1862–1933) foreign secretary

A MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT since 1885, Grey was made foreign secretary in 1905, in time for a crisis in Morocco, when Germany opposed a French protectorate there. At this point, Grey reassured France in secret military staff discussions, leading the French to expect support in any future conflict with Germany. He soon obtained an ENTENTE with Russia (1907), which paralleled the earlier one with France (1904). However, on the naval arms race with Germany, he was unsuccessful in reaching any accommodation. In 1914, as WORLD WAR I loomed, the ambiguity of his policies allowed Germany to hope that GREAT BRITAIN would remain neutral and encouraged France and Russia to hope that she would be an active ally. He remained at the foreign office until 1916 and later became president of the LEAGUE OF NATIONS Union (1918) and ambassador to the United States (1919). He wrote a valuable account of British diplomacy in his memoir,

Twenty-Five Years, 1892–1916 (2 vols., 1925).

Grey, Lady Jane (1537–1554) queen of England, 1553

The granddaughter of HENRY VIII’s sister Mary, Lady Jane Grey was married to the son of the

earl of NORTHUMBERLAND, adviser to EDWARD VI.

Northumberland tried to retain power prior to

the young king’s death by arranging for him to settle the succession on her. She was proclaimed queen when Edward died, but within days she was ousted by forces loyal to MARY I, Henry’s eldest child. Lady Jane was spared at first, but when further plots arose, she and her husband were executed.

Griffith, Arthur (1872–1922) founder of Sinn Féin

A journalist and printer involved with the GAELIC revival and the Irish nationalist movement, Griffith helped to publish a weekly paper with the resonant name of The United Irishman (1899–1906). He founded SINN FÉIN in 1905, with the object of forming an autonomous government of IRELAND, possibly along the line of the dual monarchy in Austria-Hungary. He was elected to the DÁIL ÉIREANN in 1919, and he gave up the leadership of Sinn Féin to Eamon DE VALERA. He joined the delegation which negotiated the ANGLO-IRISH TREATY, and in 1922 he briefly held the presidency of the IRISH FREE STATE after de Valera’s resignation. Griffith died of a stroke shortly before the renewed civil war broke out that summer.

Grindal, Edmund (1519–1583) archbishop of Canterbury

Born in Cumberland, son of a farmer, Grindal went to CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY at age 15, and he later became a fellow of Pembroke College. By the time he was ordained, he was adopting Protestant views. He had been a chaplain to ED- WARD VI, and he went into exile during the reign of MARY I. While in Germany, his Protestant beliefs were strengthened. On returning he be-

came BISHOP OF LONDON (1559), then ARCHBISHOP

of York (1570) and CANTERBURY (1575). He was unwilling to suppress the PURITAN practice of “prophesying” (meetings in which individuals made personal interpretations of scripture). For his disobedience he was suspended from office by Queen ELIZABETH I (1577).

guild

A type of voluntary association, traced from the Anglo-Saxon period, which took many different forms. Members of a PARISH formed devotional groups, and townsmen formed groups of merchants or craftsmen who joined together to regulate their economic activity. The latter controlled production, markets, and APPRENTICE- SHIPS. With time these bodies gained sufficient power to assert themselves in local government. By the 17th century the power of guilds was being challenged by the capitalist form of production. They were eventually superseded by

TRADE UNIONS.

Guilford, earl of See NORTH, FREDERICK

NORTH, EIGHTH BARON.

Gunpowder Plot (1605)

A group of extremist Roman Catholics were incensed by the policies of the English government under JAMES VI AND I. Led by Robert Catesby, the group planned to destroy the entire

government by blowing up the HOUSE OF LORDS while the king was attending the opening of PAR- LIAMENT. They put 30 barrels of gunpowder in a cellar under the house, and they planned to have the explosion signal a rebellion in the country. Their plans were exposed, however, and the plotters were arrested, tortured, and executed.

See also FAWKES, GUY.

Gurkha

A ruling clan in NEPAL who engaged the British in battle in the early 19th century and successfully defended their homeland. Impressed by their valor and fighting ability, the British recruited Gurkhas to fight in the British ARMY. They did so, both in INDIA and in other colonies and in the two world wars of the 20th century. In 1914 there were 10 Gurkha regiments that fought in Europe, Mesopotamia, and PALESTINE. In WORLD WAR II their units fought in Europe, AFRICA, and Asia. At the time of Indian independence, some regiments went into the new Indian army, and a brigade was incorporated into the British army.

habeas corpus

A COMMON LAW writ, of which the opening words in Latin mean “you have the body.” It was directed to SHERIFFS or other custodians, ordering them to present a prisoner before the court. By the 16th century the order was being used by common law courts to challenge detentions by other authorities. By the 17th century it was being used to contest the power of royal councillors to commit, and it was a key element

in the FIVE KNIGHT’S CASE and the PETITION OF

RIGHT. A statutory rule was laid down for protection against arbitrary imprisonment in the STAR CHAMBER act of 1641. A further law made rules for administering the WRIT in the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679. The writ only applied to criminal cases until it was extended to civil cases in 1816. The 19th-century reforms of MAGIS- TRATEs’ powers and procedures tended to bypass the writ in most cases, and in the 20th century it was used chiefly in cases of extradition and deportation.

Haggard, H(enry) Rider

(1856–1925) novelist

Son of a Norfolk squire, Haggard lived in SOUTH AFRICA and wrote widely on South African history and agriculture. His most popular work was in adventure stories, some 34 novels in all. His first novel, Dawn (1884), was followed by King Solomon’s Mines (1885) and She (1887). His work incorporated African custom and myth, giving vivid pictures to an audience eager for the tales of the colonial frontier.

Haig, Douglas Haig, first earl (1861–1928) general

Born in EDINBURGH into the well-known family of whisky distillers, Haig attended Brasenose College,

OXFORD UNIVERSITY. At SANDHURST he graduated

first in his class. He served in INDIA, then fought in The SUDAN and in the BOER WAR. He was with the

BRITISH EXPEDITIONARY FORCE in France in 1914,

fighting at Mons, the Marne, and Ypres. In 1915 he was made commander in chief of the British armies, replacing Sir John FRENCH. Haig was criticized for his leadership in the battles of the SOMME (1916) and Ypres (1917) which resulted in very heavy casualties. He led the successful campaign of 1918, but the earlier and bloodier battles of WORLD WAR I stand as his main memorial.

Hailsham, Quinton McGarel Hogg Hailsham, baron of Saint Marylebone

(1907–2001)

(second viscount Halisham) lawyer, politician

A Conservative who entered PARLIAMENT in 1938, Hailsham was a TORY social reformer who served in the cabinets of Anthony EDEN and Harold MACMILLAN. He gave up his PEERAGE (second viscount Halisham) in 1963, hoping to become party leader, but he was unsuccessful. He was made a life peer when he took the post of LORD CHANCEL- LOR in 1974, and he was reappointed in 1979.

Hakluyt, Richard (1551–1616) geographer

An orphan, Hakluyt was taken in by a cousin who was a BARRISTER and grew up in Hereford-