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shire. He attended Westminster and Christ’s Church, OXFORD UNIVERSITY, where he studied geography and collected narratives of voyages. He became a major promoter of exploration and engaged in several colonizing schemes, such as Sir Walter RALEIGH’s Roanoke. He published

Principall Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation in 1589, as well as a much-enlarged version in 1598–1600.

Haldane, Richard Burdon Haldane, viscount (1856–1928)

politician

Haldane studied at Edinburgh Academy, the University of Edinburgh, and Göttingen University. He also studied at Lincoln’s Inn, became a BARRISTER in 1879, and made Queen’s Counsel in 1890. Elected to PARLIAMENT as a Liberal in 1885, he became secretary for war in 1905. He introduced a set of ARMY reforms, creating a general staff, reorganizing forces into a home or “territorial” force, and forming an expeditionary force. Raised to the PEERAGE in 1911, he became LORD CHANCELLOR in 1912. However, because of his fondness for Germany and for German philosophy, he was dismissed in 1915. He was chancellor again in the first LABOUR PARTY government, formed in 1924. He was also active in EDUCATION, a cofounder of the London School of Economics in 1895 and president of Birkbeck College in the University of London, 1919–28.

Hale, Sir Matthew (1609–1676) judge, author

Born in Gloucestershire, Hale attended Magdalen Hall, OXFORD UNIVERSITY, and Lincoln’s Inn. He was one of the counsel to ARCHBISHOP William LAUD and an eminent jurist who had the distinction of serving under the

and then under CHARLES II. He headed a reform commission which examined the COMMON LAW in 1652, and he became chief justice of the Court of COMMON PLEAS in 1654. He played an important role in the Convention Parliament (1660), and he was chief justice of the Court of KING’S BENCH in

1671. He was also a prolific author in the fields of science, theology, and the LAW. His legal works were mostly unpublished in his lifetime, but his

History of the Common Law (1713) and History of the Pleas of the Crown (1736) were important landmarks, and he collected a great quantity of sources for medieval legal history.

Halifax, Charles Montagu, earl of

(1661–1715) politician, financier

As a lord of the TREASURY from 1692, Halifax was responsible for the introduction of the NATIONAL DEBT (1693) as part of the terms of a £1 million loan to the government. A similar loan in 1694 was the occasion for the founding of the BANK OF

ENGLAND. By then Halifax was CHANCELLOR OF

THE EXCHEQUER, and in 1697 he became first lord of the treasury. He was forced to resign in 1699, and he was impeached and acquitted in 1701. He returned to power under GEORGE I in 1714 but died the following year.

Halifax, Edward Frederick Lindley Wood, earl of (1881–1959)

statesman

Halifax studied at Eton and Christ Church, OXFORD UNIVERSITY, and was also a Fellow of All Souls, Oxford. He was a MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from 1910 until 1925. As Lord Irwin he was VICEROY of INDIA (1925–31), and he had some success in discussing constitutional reform for INDIA with Mohandas GANDHI. As foreign secretary (1938–41) he was a supporter of APPEASEMENT. When Neville CHAMBERLAIN was ousted, Halifax was a candidate for PRIME MINISTER, but Winston CHURCHILL was picked instead, and he sent Halifax as ambassador to the United States (1941–46), where he was a very successful intermediary.

Halley, Edmond (1656–1742) astronomer

The son of a wealthy London manufacturer, Halley attended St. Paul’s School and Queen’s Col-

lege, OXFORD UNIVERSITY. A fellow of the ROYAL

SOCIETY in 1678, he was its assistant secretary, 1685–93. He led a scientific expedition for the ADMIRALTY to study magnetic compass variation (1698–1700). He is best known for identifying the comet which bears his name. Observing it in 1682, he calculated that it was the same one that had been seen in 1456, 1531, and 1607, and he correctly predicted its return in 1758.

Hamilton, James, first duke of

(1606–1649)

Scottish royalist

Born into one of the great landowning families in Scotland, Hamilton attended Exeter College, OXFORD UNIVERSITY. He became master of the horse (an office at Court) in 1628. He commanded British forces in Germany (1631–34) with little success. He tried to negotiate on behalf of CHARLES I with the COVENANTERS in 1638, but then and later he was suspected of treachery. Imprisoned by the king (1644–46), he later negotiated the ENGAGEMENT with the Scots, and he led the army that was defeated at Preston by Oliver CROMWELL. He was captured and executed.

Hamilton, James, fourth duke

(1658–1712)

Jacobite leader

Hamilton’s father was a supporter of WILLIAM III, but he remained loyal to JAMES VII AND II. He entered the Scottish parliament in 1700, and he was an advocate of the Act of Security (1704), which asserted the Scots’ right to declare the successor to their throne. He then supported the motion to ask Queen ANNE to appoint commissioners to negotiate a UNION, but he later strongly opposed the terms. He was chosen as a Scottish representative peer in 1708, but had to struggle to gain admission to the HOUSE OF LORDS. He was killed in a duel in Hyde Park.

Hamilton-Gordon, George See

ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON-GORDON, EARL OF.

Hampden, John (1594–1643) politician

Born in LONDON, Hampden was the son of a wealthy landowner. He attended Magdalen College (OXFORD UNIVERSITY) and the Inner Temple (see INNS OF COURT). He was elected to PARLIA- MENT in 1621, and he became a leading opponent of CHARLES I. He was one of the FIVE KNIGHTS imprisoned for refusing to pay the king’s FORCED LOAN in 1627. His refusal to pay the SHIP MONEY tax in 1635 led to a famous court case and helped to spread resistance to the tax. He played a conciliatory role at the beginning of the LONG PARLIAMENT, in debates on the

GRAND REMONSTRANCE, and in opposing the IMPEACHMENT of Lord STRAFFORD. He raised a reg-

iment to fight the king, and he was killed in a skirmish after the Battle of EDGEHILL. As a reform hero, he was the namesake of the Hampden Clubs founded by Major John CARTWRIGHT in the 1790s.

Hampton Court Conference (1604)

When JAMES VI AND I took the English throne, he had to reconcile the churches of England and Scotland. The ANGLICAN church as settled by Queen ELIZABETH I still kept BISHOPS and used ceremonies that offended PURITANS. The English Puritans believed that James, coming from PRES- BYTERIAN Scotland, would be receptive to change. They addressed a petition to him, and the king summoned Puritans and bishops to meet at Hampton Court for a theological debate. James did not accept Puritans’ proposals, and he was loath to do away with bishops. The conference did endorse a new translation of the Holy BIBLE, which became known as the King James Version, completed in 1611.

Hampton Court Palace

A royal palace on the Thames River near Richmond in Middlesex. Built by Cardinal Thomas WOLSEY in 1515, it was taken in 1529 by HENRY VIII, who expanded it. There are excellent examples of Tudor architecture from this period. Fur-

ther major additions to the palace were made in the time of WILLIAM III, designed by Christopher WREN. GEORGE I was the last monarch to live in the palace, and in Queen VICTORIA’s reign the buildings were opened to the public. Parts of the palace were seriously damaged by fire in 1986.

Handel, George Frederick (1685–1759) composer

Born in Saxony, Handel was the court composer for GEORGE I when the latter was Elector of HANOVER. In 1710 he came to LONDON, where he composed 35 operas, a number of oratorios (including his Messiah, 1741), and two orchestral works for the royal court: Water Music (1717) and Music for the Royal Fireworks (1749).

Hankey, Maurice Pascal Alers Hankey, first baron (1877–1963)

cabinet secretary

Hankey was born in Biarritz; his father became a sheep farmer in Australia. He attended Rugby School and the Royal Naval College, he served as a naval intelligence officer, and then became secretary to the Committee of IMPERIAL DEFENCE (1912–38). Working in the War Cabinet in 1916, he helped create the CABINET secretariat, the structure of which was carried over into peacetime government. This was the first formally organized administrative staff for the cabinet, and Hankey continued to serve there until 1938. Meanwhile he had also been secretary to the British delegation to the Paris Peace Conference (1919), and he served in the same capacity at many of the major interwar conferences. Hankey also worked in the wartime cabinets from 1939 to 1942. He published several works based on his experience: Government Control in War (1945); Diplomacy by Conference (1946); The Science and Art of Government (1951); and his much-edited WORLD WAR I memoirs, appearing in two volumes in 1961: The Supreme Command, 1914–1918.

Hanover

A German state, also known as BrunswickLüneberg, granted electoral status within the Holy Roman Empire in 1705. A century earlier, Elizabeth, the daughter of JAMES VI AND I of ENGLAND, had married Prince Frederick, the Elector Palatine. Their daughter Sophia married the Elector of Hanover, and their son was GEORGE I. The Act of SETTLEMENT (1701), which vested the succession in this family, placed many restrictions on the monarch: PARLIAMENT had to approve any war in aid of Hanover, no Germans were to be appointed to British offices, and the king’s visits to his homeland were to be approved by Parliament. The dynastic tie with a small continental state was a dubious asset for the British, and its major contribution was to enable the passing of the Crown to a Protestant heir.

Hansard family (1752–1828) printers

Born in Norwich, Luke Hansard established a printing business in LONDON, and in 1774 he began to print the Journals of the House of Commons.

His son Thomas (1776–1833) took over the printing of parliamentary debates for William COBBETT, and he was a codefendant with Cobbett on SEDI- TION charges, for which he was imprisoned. At this point Cobbett was forced to sell the debate publication business to Hansard. The firm maintained the work for a century, but in 1909 the HOUSE OF COMMONS shifted to an official report of the debates, prepared by the stationery office. The name “Hansard” is still used to refer to the series.

Hanway, Jonas (1712–1786) philanthropist

A merchant in Portugal, then with the Russia Company, Hanway published accounts of his travels, and he founded the Marine Society (1756), which trained poor boys to become sailors. In 1758 he became a governor of the Foundling Hospital, and he helped to found the Magdalen Hospital for penitent prostitutes. He

supported a number of other causes, including providing wet-nurses for parish children, protecting chimney sweeps, and promoting prison

reforms and SUNDAY SCHOOLS.

Harcourt, Sir William (1827–1904) politician

A BARRISTER and a leading figure in the LIBERAL PARTY, Harcourt served in PARLIAMENT from 1868 to 1898. He was home secretary under William GLADSTONE (1880–85), and he was also CHAN-

CELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER in 1886 and 1892–95.

In the latter period he was famous for the introduction of death duties (inheritance tax) in 1894, when he used the unduly alarming words: “We are all socialists now!”

Hardie, (James) Keir (1856–1915)

Labour leader

A coal miner as a child in Lanarkshire, Hardie was expelled as an agitator and blacklisted by the mine owners. He became the secretary of the Scottish Miners’ Federation in 1886, and the next year he headed the Scottish Labour Party. Elected to PARLIAMENT as an independent Labour candidate in 1892, he founded the INDEPENDENT LABOUR PARTY in 1893. He helped to organize the Labour Representation Committee in 1900, and in 1906 he became the first leader of the LABOUR

PARTY.

Hardy, Thomas (1840–1928) novelist

Born into a family of stonemasons, Hardy trained as an architect, but his true craft was writing. His novels were set in his native Dorset (“Wessex” in the books). His major works were Under the Greenwood Tree (1872), Far From the Madding Crowd (1874), Tess of the D’Urbervilles (1891), and

Jude the Obscure (1895). His books gained a hostile reception, and he returned to poetry, where his artistry was even more evident. He produced eight volumes of poetry and over 40 short stories.

Hargreaves, James (1720–1778) inventor

A craftsman and weaver in Lancashire, Hargreaves who invented the spinning jenny (1764). His device allowed a spinner to produce several threads at once. Hand spinners were alarmed at this change, and his house was attacked by an angry mob. His patent for the machine was ruled illegal because he sold several models prior to seeking the patent. This innovation was the first of many that were instrumental in England’s

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.

Harley, Robert, first earl of Oxford

(1661–1724)

prime minister, 1710–1714

From Herefordshire, Harley was a student at a

DISSENTING ACADEMY. His first election to PARLIA-

MENT was in 1689. At first a supporter of the WHIGS, he switched his allegiance at the accession of Queen ANNE. He was made SPEAKER OF

THE HOUSE (1702–05), became SECRETARY OF

STATE (1704–08), and then was chancellor and lord treasurer (1710–14). In 1713 he negotiated the treaty of UTRECHT with France. He was suspected of sympathizing with the JACOBITES, and he was impeached and imprisoned for two years, but eventually he was acquitted. He had a large collection of books and manuscripts, and the Harleian collection became part of the nucleus of

the BRITISH MUSEUM library.

Harmsworth, Alfred See NORTHCLIFFE,

ALFRED HARMSWORTH, VISCOUNT.

Harmsworth, Harold See ROTHERMERE,

HAROLD HARMSWORTH, VISCOUNT.

Harrington, James (1611–1677) philosopher

Born into an aristocratic family, Harrington attended Trinity College, OXFORD UNIVERSITY. He

was not involved in the CIVIL WAR, but he was a personal friend of CHARLES I. He published The Commonwealth of Oceana (1656), which argued that the nature of the state derived from the manner in which property was distributed within it: a single owner is an absolute monarch, a small group produces a tight aristocratic order, and a large body of landowners ought to be governed by a republic. Harrington also formed the Rota Club, a forum for political discussion.

Harris, Arthur Travers (1892–1984)

Royal Air Force commander

As the head of ROYAL AIR FORCE bomber command, he pushed for strategic bombing of Germany during WORLD WAR II. His nickname “Bomber” Harris denoted his fanatical commitment to what was known as “area bombing,” i.e., the indiscriminate bombing of military and civilian targets with the goal of demoralizing the enemy. The most frightful example was the bombing of Dresden, which took an estimated 100,000 lives. After the war, Harris was not honored as other military leaders were, because of the growing odium attached to his tactics, although they had been supported by many while the fighting was going on, and in any event he had been following government policy.

Harrison, John (1693–1776) clockmaker

The son of a carpenter in Barrow-on-Humber, Harrison learned about clocks by repairing them. He began making clocks with his brother, trying to build more and more precise mechanisms. When he heard of the great prize (£20,000) created by PARLIAMENT for the most accurate measurement of longitude, he set to work devising frictionless parts for a clock that was seaworthy. He obtained a LONDON patron and submitted his designs to the Board of Longitude while continuing to work on perfecting his designs. Many years later he was finally, grudgingly, awarded the prize, but not without the direct intervention

of GEORGE III.

Hartington, Spencer Cavendish, marquis of (1833–1908)

politician

Heir of the duke of Devonshire, Hartington was known for most of his career by his courtesy title, Marquis of Hartington. He sat in the HOUSE OF COMMONS for most of the period from 1857 to 1891 and served as secretary for war and SECRE-

TARY OF STATE for INDIA in LIBERAL PARTY cabinets.

He was briefly the leader of the Liberals (1875–80), but he opposed William GLADSTONE over IRISH HOME RULE in 1886 and was one of the leaders of the LIBERAL UNIONISTS who broke from the party over this issue.

Harvey, William (1578–1657) physician

Harvey was born in Folkestone to a wealthy merchant. After King’s School, Canterbury, he attended Caius College, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. Later he studied in Padua, Italy, and he became physician to JAMES VI AND I. He was also at the court of CHARLES I. His dissections and anatomical studies proved the circulation of the blood, which he explained in De Motu Cordis (1628). He also studied embryology and developed a theory of the gestation of animals from eggs.

Haselrig, Sir Arthur (1600–1661) politician

A staunch PURITAN, Haselrig denounced the king’s ministers Lord STAFFORD and William LAUD in the House of Commons. One of the five MPs CHARLES I tried to arrest in 1642, he was a successful commander of rebel forces, but he became alienated during the PROTECTORATE. He helped with the RESTORATION, but he was arrested and died in the TOWER OF LONDON.

Hastings, Warren (1732–1818) colonial administrator

Born in Oxfordshire, Hastings was orphaned at an early age. His uncle sent him to school, and he joined the EAST INDIA COMPANY in 1750. In