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O’Neill, Owen Roe (1590–1649) soldier

The nephew of Hugh O’NEILL served for 30 years in the Spanish army. He returned to IRELAND in 1642 to lead Irish forces in the North. He won the Battle of Benburb in 1646, defeating the Scots and their ULSTER allies. He fell out with other Catholic leaders and was declared a traitor in 1648. He died shortly afterward.

O’Neill, Sir Phelim (1604–1653) rebel leader

A leader in the ULSTER rebellion of 1641, O’Neill was in command of Ulster forces before the arrival of Owen Roe O’NEILL. They fought together, but in 1650 he was forced to surrender to English forces, and he was executed.

O’Neill, Shane (1530–1567)

Gaelic chief

The son of Con O’NEILL and his rightful heir, Shane O’Neill was forced to fight for his title, drove his father from his territory, killed his half-brother, and held off the English. He visited ELIZABETH I in 1562 and seemed to secure his hold on authority when he returned to IRELAND. He attacked the PALE in 1566, took refuge with some of his rivals, and was assassinated in 1567.

O’Neill, Terence (1914–1990) prime minister of Northern Ireland, 1963–1969

Leader of the UNIONISTS in ULSTER, O’Neill wanted to promote modernization and increased toleration between the Catholic and Protestant communities. He succeeded in stimulating loyalist fears and Catholic ambitions. He hosted a

visit from the PRIME MINISTER of the IRISH REPUB-

LIC in 1965, and in 1968 he authored a reform program that promised to reduce discrimination against Catholics. These moves met with opposition within his party, which in turn encouraged protests by civil-rights groups and led to violent confrontations.

Open University

Combining radio, television, and tutorials, this modern degree-granting body began in 1971. Its clientele were mainly adults pursuing further education, its faculty was drawn from a wide spectrum of academics, and it sponsored extensive publication of course materials and related works.

Opium Wars (1839–1842, 1856–1860)

British merchants in INDIA developed a lucrative trade in opium in China. In 1839 the authorities in Canton confiscated the shipments of opium and demanded that the British turn over two sailors who were suspects in the murder of a Chinese. Gunboats from the EAST INDIA COMPANY bombarded Canton, and the British seized HONG KONG. The Treaty of Nanking recognized that acquisition plus other “treaty ports.” The deadly Taiping rebellion (1850–64), in which millions of Chinese died, created a power vacuum that European states used to extend their authority in port cities such as Shanghai and Port Arthur.

Orange Free State

Afrikaners (Boers) who emigrated from the CAPE COLONY in the “Great Trek” settled along the Orange River in 1836. Their territory was annexed by GREAT BRITAIN (1848), then granted independence in 1854 as the Orange Free State. It was annexed once more during the BOER WAR (1900). As the Orange River Colony, it became independent in 1907 and joined the Union of

SOUTH AFRICA in 1910.

Orange Order

A loyalist Protestant organization, the Orange Order takes its name from the hero of northern Irish Protestants, William of Orange (King WIL- LIAM III.) In the 1790s a combination of agita- tions—for Catholic relief, for republican reform, and LAND reform—created rival groups. The Catholic “Defenders” inspired the Protestant Orange Order, which was run in the manner of

masonic lodges. Its members were well represented in the YEOMANry and the ARMY. There was a critical examination of the Order by PAR- LIAMENT in the 1830s, and it was disbanded. In the later 19th century it revived to lead opposition to IRISH HOME RULE. In the 20th century the order remained a prominent force behind ULSTER unionism. Its annual marches celebrating William III’s victory at the BOYNE (July 12) have been regular occasions for sectarian confrontation.

order in council

Order issued by the Crown, on the advice of the PRIVY COUNCIL, either on the authority of the royal PREROGATIVE or under the powers given by statute to ministers to issue regulations.

Ordnance Survey

The mapping of the British Isles was found to be seriously deficient in the 18th century. At the time of the rebellion of 1745, a survey in SCOT- LAND was the precursor to further mapping. A national survey was undertaken in 1791, with triangulation of the whole of GREAT BRITAIN, supplemented with local surveying. The operation was under the Master General of the Ordnance, the office in charge of explosives and artillery. By the middle of the 19th century there had been systematic mapping of ENGLAND, WALES, Scotland, and IRELAND.

Orford, first earl of See WALPOLE, ROBERT,

FIRST EARL OF ORFORD.

Orkney

The northernmost islands, long held by Scandinavian rulers and part of SCOTLAND since the marriage of Margaret of Denmark to JAMES III (1469). Agriculture and fishing were principal employments before the development of NORTH SEA OIL. Some of the most important stone-age

sites (Skara Brae dwellings, Maes Howe burial cairns) are located on the islands.

Ormonde, dukes and earls of

James Butler, first duke (1610–88), became LORD LIEUTENANT of IRELAND and led royalist forces in the CIVIL WAR. He returned from exile at the RESTORATION and resumed office, then resigned in 1685.

James Butler, 2nd duke (1665–1745), heir to the title (1688), supported WILLIAM III. He served as LORD LIEUTENANT, opposed the succession of GEORGE I, and participated in JACOBITE rebellions in 1715 and 1719.

Piers Butler, eighth earl (1467–1539), lord deputy of IRELAND (1521) and lord treasurer (1524), helped to suppress rebellion by the Irish.

Thomas Butler, tenth earl (1532–1614), was a loyal supporter of queen ELIZABETH I. His authority in Southwestern IRELAND was increased after the defeat of the DESMOND REBELLION (1583).

Orwell, George (1903–1950) author

Born Eric Blair, Orwell was the son of an official in the government of INDIA. He worked in BURMA and then at odd jobs in France and ENGLAND. His early works were based on these experiences. In 1937 he was commissioned to write a study of unemployment, and his Road to Wigan Pier (1937) was followed by an account of his experience in the Spanish civil war (Homage to Catalonia, 1938). His best-known works are the satirical account of totalitarian rule, Animal Farm (1945), and Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949).

Osborne, Thomas See DANBY, THOMAS

OSBORNE, EARL OF.

Osborne judgment (1909)

W. V. Osborne was the secretary of a branch of the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants.

He filed a suit objecting to the forced contribution to the LABOUR PARTY from his union. The Judicial Committee of the

decided that a union could not use its funds for political purposes. The party suffered a serious loss of funds, but an act in 1913 made union contributions lawful and gave individuals the ability to opt out. The temporary loss of funds was a factor in the introduction of salaries for MPs in 1911.

Ossian

James MacPherson caused a stir in literary circles with the publication (1762–63) of what he said were the poems of an ancient GAELIC bard named Ossian. From the time of their publication, doubts have been expressed about their authenticity. Probably they are a mixture of fragments of oral tradition and the editor’s imagination. In any event, the works exploited a growing sense of Gaelic revival and national sentiment.

Ottawa Conference (1932)

An imperial conference on economic matters, at the height of the DEPRESSION. In response to CANADA’s need to protect wheat prices, GREAT BRITAIN agreed to a set of preferential TARIFFs with and between the DOMINIONs, a policy that ended the era of FREE TRADE.

Owen, Robert (1771–1858) social reformer

Born in WALES, Owen worked in cotton factories, and he helped to reorganize the mills at New Lanark in SCOTLAND. There a model community was set up, and it became something of a sensation in reform circles. His book A New View of Society (1813) espoused the theory that environment governed social development, and he advocated planned communities in connection with industry. He also had ideas about cooperative communities, leading to experi-

ments in various locations in both the United States and the UNITED KINGDOM. In a more worldly effort, he organized the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union (1834), which proved to be too ambitious for its time. Owen was a visionary, and his work was one source of inspiration for the very practical and successful

COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT of the 19th century.

Oxford and Asquith, earl of See

ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY, EARL OF OXFORD AND ASQUITH.

Oxford movement

The religious reform movement within the ANGLICAN church, launched in 1833 by John Keble (1792–1866). His sermon on “National Apostasy” sought to turn the church toward its prereformation roots. He and other OXFORD UNI- VERSITY dons were hostile to recent interference by the civil government in church affairs. Tracts for the Times (1833–41) were essays written by the movement’s leaders, J. H. NEWMAN, R. H. Froude, and E. B. Pusey. The result of the movement was the emergence of a strong Anglo-Catholic segment, one which came to predominate within the church in the 20th century.

Oxford University

Because of the disputes between Henry II and his French overlord, students could not attend the University of Paris. Scholars therefore had gathered in this English town and trade center to form a new academic community. When a quarrel between townsmen and scholars erupted in 1209, the pope intervened and issued what amounted to a charter in 1214. The Dominican and Franciscan orders made Oxford a base for their movements in the 1220s, and naturally the degree in divinity was the principal field of study. Wealthy benefactors endowed colleges, several in the 13th and in the 14th centuries. There were six new foundations (added to the existing 10) in

the 16th century, two each in the 17th and 18th centuries, eight in the 19th, and 12 in the 20th century. At various times the university was associated with different religious orientations: it was the base for John WYCLIFFE in the 14th century and a haven for humanists in the 16th century, but then it became the high church center, under the revised statutes of Archbishop William LAUD in 1636. It was a main retreat of JACOBITES in the 18th century and the focal point of the

in the 19th century. With

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, Oxford experienced

major reforms from the middle of the 19th century, admitting dissenters and women and adding modern curriculum and facilities.

oyer and terminer

Literally, to hear and determine—the instruction to justices in their commission to visit the shires and hear charges against criminal suspects. These were the central commissions of the ASSIZE system, which operated in ENGLAND from the 12th century until its abolition in 1971.

Paine, Thomas (1737–1809) revolutionary author

From a Norfolk QUAKER family, Paine worked for the Excise until dismissed for publishing a pamphlet demanding higher pay. He emigrated to America in 1774 and was caught up in the independence movement there. In 1776 he wrote his famous essay Common Sense, and he was made secretary to the congressional committee on foreign affairs. He went on diplomatic missions to France and returned to ENGLAND in the early days of the revolution. He wrote The Rights of Man (part I) in 1791; the second part was published in 1792. His famous rebuttal to Edmund BURKE’s

Reflections on the Revolution made him the hero of British radicals and the nemesis of the establishment. It also earned him a trial for seditious libel, at which he was convicted in absentia. Meanwhile, he had returned to France, where he was elected to the national convention. When he opposed the execution of the king, he was dismissed and imprisoned. In 1794 he published The Age of Reason. He returned to America in 1802.

See also RADICALISM.

Paisley, Ian (1926– ) politician, clergyman

A vigorous anti-Catholic and UNIONIST politician, Paisley has led the Democratic Unionist Party since 1971. He joined with the Ulster Workers’ Council in 1974 to organize a strike to disrupt a power-sharing agreement. He won decisive victories in European elections in ULSTER (1979, 1984). Having a seat in the Westminster PARLIAMENT, he resigned in 1985 to protest the Anglo-Irish agreement of that year. He was an outspoken opponent

of the “Good Friday” peace agreement of 1998, and he led the opposition in the Northern Ireland Assembly, which was constituted as a result of that agreement.

Pakistan

The Islamic Republic of Pakistan was formed in the bloody partition of newly independent INDIA in 1947. The Muslim minority wanted separate control, and the partition resulted in two separate units, East and West Pakistan. M. A. JINNAH was the leader of the Muslim League, the main body advocating separation, and it is unlikely that the result of partition was what he aimed for. There were serious tensions between India and Pakistan, unstable internal politics with a number of military regimes, and the eastern part declared independence as the state of BANGLADESH in 1971.

Pale

The area around DUBLIN where the English were able to maintain authority in the medieval and early modern period. Its size was drastically reduced around 1500 to an area of about 30 by 50 miles, but over the following century, the TUDORs steadily expanded into the areas of native control, achieving a form of conquest by the end of ELIZABETH I’s reign.

Palestine

The area between the Mediterranean and Jordan, which, after the diaspora of the Jewish people in A.D. 70 was inhabited by Arabic peoples. The location of holy places for Christians and

Arabs as well as Jews, the region was for many years under the government of the Ottoman Turks. When it was captured in 1917, the British promised in the BALFOUR DECLARATION to allow establishment of a homeland for the Jewish people, the long-sought objective of Zionists. Palestine became a mandate of GREAT BRITAIN under

the LEAGUE OF NATIONS in 1920. After WORLD WAR

II, with increasing pressure for Jewish immigration and terrorist activity on both sides resulting in a civil war, Britain withdrew in 1948. The state of Israel was proclaimed at the same time, and after a series of wars with Arab neighbors (1948–73), the Jewish state was established, its relations with EGYPT and Jordan were settled by treaties, but its internal peace with Palestinians remained elusive.

Palmer, Roundell See SELBORNE, ROUNDELL

PALMER, EARL OF.

Palmerston, Henry Temple, viscount (1784–1865)

prime minister, 1855–1858, 1859–1865

Palmerston was educated at Harrow, Edinburgh, and CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. As an Irish peer, he was not allowed to sit in the HOUSE OF LORDS, but he was able to hold a seat in the HOUSE OF COM- MONS, and did so for 58 years. For most of that time he held government office, most notably as foreign secretary for most of the 1830s and 1840s. He was a TORY at first, but changed to the WHIGS in 1830. His foreign policy was pragmatic, supporting British interests wherever possible and usually favoring liberal constitutional regimes, but not on ideological grounds. He took office as PRIME MINISTER when the Aberdeen ministry fell during the CRIMEAN WAR. His decade of leadership is often seen as the time of gestation of the LIBERAL PARTY, and he did support FREE TRADE, reduced government expenditure, and the establishment of a unified Italy. However, Palmerston did not favor further reform in the FRANCHISE or in economic and social areas.

Pankhurst family

Christabel, 1880–1958, eldest daughter of Emmeline, studied law at Manchester, but she was denied entry to Lincoln’s Inn in 1904 because she was a woman. She founded the Women’s Social and Political Union with her mother in 1903, and she edited The Suffragette.

Emmeline, 1858–1928, married Richard Pankhurst and with him joined the FABIAN SOCIETY and

the INDEPENDENT LABOUR PARTY. But the latter

group was opposed to women’s suffrage, and she and her daughter Christabel decided to found their own organization, the Women’s Social and Political Union (1903). From a base in Manchester, this grew to a national body, inspired by protests, imprisonments, and clumsy government reactions. At the start of the war, activity was suspended, and she and Christabel became supporters of the war effort.

Emmeline Pankhurst (Library of Congress)

Sylvia, 1882–1960, daughter of Emmeline, was an artist and a socialist. She was involved with the Women’s Social and Political Union, but her views were more radical, favoring a wide range of rights for women of all classes. She continued to press her views during WORLD WAR I, and in 1920 she went to Moscow to attend the Third International.

See also SUFFRAGETTES; WOMEN’S MOVEMENT.

parish

The local area under the direction of a priest, having an endowment and an income from the TITHEs of property owners. Parish churches were often built by the principal landowner(s), the affairs of the local church were managed by a vestry led by a churchwarden. The priest (rector, vicar, or curate) was subject to the visitation of the BISHOP of the diocese. A parish also had a civil identity as a unit of local government, e.g., for the administration of the POOR LAW and the upkeep of highways.

Parker, Matthew (1504–1575) archbishop of Canterbury, 1559–1575

Born in Norwich, Parker attended Corpus Christi College, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. He became a Fellow, and though he lost his university posts under MARY I, he was called by ELIZABETH I to

become ARCHBISHOP of CANTERBURY. His moder-

ate positions helped to find a middle ground in the THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES of 1563. He sponsored the translation known as the “Bishops’ Bible,” in 1568, but he was obliged to support the queen’s views. He provoked PURITAN hostility when he published the Advertisements (1566), which called for use of formal clerical vestments.

Parliament

ENGLAND

Parliament’s origins were with royal COUNCILs, which were summoned by the king. A great council was an occasion when all of the king’s

officials were assembled. In the 13th century these meetings were augmented with the “com- mons”—KNIGHTS and BURGESSES. They were present to endorse TAXATION and from time to time to present petitions to the Crown, which formed the basis for legislation. Such legislative acts were very few in number before the modern period. The move toward more powerful statutes began with the REFORMATION and its attendant laws regarding the established church and the royal succession. After the CIVIL WAR and revolutions of the 17th century, Parliament became a regular part of government, its leaders (and their followers) divided into parties, which vied for the management of the king’s affairs. Their title to do so came to depend on the support of the electorate. As the number of enfranchised voters grew in the 19th century, it became clear that they, not the sovereign, would choose the party and the leaders who would govern. Meanwhile the internal structure of Parliament and its operations had also evolved, and the HOUSE OF COM- MONS slowly (1660–1911) became the superior branch. From the 18th century both the HOUSE OF LORDS and the Commons conducted business with an elaborate system of committees. Operations of government departments grew, and CAB- INET ministers had their business organized by a cabinet secretariat and in their separate areas by a large body of civil servants (see CIVIL SERVICE).

SCOTLAND

The kings of Scots had their royal councils, noted from as early as the 13th century in meetings (colloquia) to make policy and render legal judgments. In the next century there were knights and landholders called to meetings, along with representatives of BURGHs. This was, as in ENGLAND, to approve taxation, but the opposition in these bodies seemed to be more vigorous than in the English Parliament. Other differences were that the Scottish Parliament was managed by an elected committee, called the Lords of the Articles, and the Scots maintained a more typical European unicameral legislature of three estates: clergy, barons, and burgh commissioners. The