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estates became more powerful in the 17th century, just as the English houses did, but in SCOT- LAND’s case that development was aborted by the UNION of 1707. Election of Scottish members to both English houses replaced the distinctive Scottish legislature, and only in 1999 was a form of purely Scottish representation recreated in a new Scottish Parliament.

IRELAND

A parliament in IRELAND can be traced to the 13th century, but it was peculiar in that it was not intended to include the “mere Irish,” the GAELIC majority population (until 1542). Also, the forms and procedures were English imports, and as of 1494, under POYNINGS’ LAWS, the acts of these parliaments were to be approved by the English government before becoming law. There were long periods with no parliament, and until 1768 a parliament was meant to last for an entire reign (of the English sovereign). The period of Henry GRATTAN’s Parliament (1782– 1800) was an anomaly in that a certain amount of Irish initiative was granted; however, the power of government had not been surrendered. Moreover, in reaction to the rebellion of 1798, the Act of Union ended the Irish Parliament in 1801. In 1920 the Government of Ireland Act began the process of restoring an Irish parliament, actually two parliaments. The southern body became a republican institution by 1937, the northern became a one-party, UNION- IST institution, which was dissolved in 1972 and not replaced for the rest of the century.

WALES

There was no continuing parliamentary tradition in WALES, though undoubtedly there was consultation between Welsh princes and their councils. In 1404 and 1405 Owen GLENDOWER summoned men from all districts to meet in parliaments, but no tradition grew from this rebellious precedent. Welsh members were sent to English parliaments, and from 1536 this was on a regular basis. In 1999 a WELSH ASSEMBLY was created.

Charles Stewart Parnell (Library of Congress)

Parnell, Charles Stewart (1846–1891)

Irish nationalist

Born into an Anglo-Irish landowning family, Parnell attended Westminster School and Magdalene College, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. He entered PARLIAMENT in 1875 and joined the more extreme wing of the IRISH HOME RULE party, which he soon came to dominate. As the first president of the Irish Land League he allied the parliamentary movement with a popular organization agitating for LAND reform. He employed the influence of both—through filibusters in Parliament and agitation in IRELAND—to gain more favorable terms in legislation. By 1885 the 85 Irish nation-

alist MPs held the balance of power between the LIBERAL PARTY and Conservative Party, and this may have inspired William GLADSTONE to introduce the first Irish Home Rule bill in 1886. That measure was defeated by the secession of the LIB- ERAL UNIONISTS, and in the next few years Parnell had to defend himself from spurious charges based on forged letters (he won) and real charges in a divorce suit (he lost). The latter ended his leadership, and he died soon after.

Parr, Catherine (1512–1548) queen of England

The sixth wife of HENRY VIII (1543), Catherine Parr had been married twice before. Her age and experience brought stability to the relationship, and she was active in overseeing the upbringing of the princesses, Mary and Elizabeth. She acted as regent while the king campaigned in France in 1544, but she was not allowed to take that post when the young EDWARD VI became king.

Paterson, William (1658–1719) banker, economist

Born in Dumfriesshire, SCOTLAND, Paterson came to ENGLAND as a youth, and he had a successful career in trade, especially in the WEST INDIES. He participated in the scheme to found the BANK OF ENGLAND, but he quarrelled with other directors and resigned. He also was a principal in the formation of the Bank of Scotland, and he promoted the DARIEN scheme for a Scottish company to trade in Central America (1698–1700). He went to the site of the new COLONY, where there was great loss of life (including that of his wife) and a general failure, due in part to English opposition to investment in the scheme.

patronage

In Roman law the patron was the former master of a freed slave, and as such had legal responsibilities to his client. The term was adapted to the church in two senses: that there were

patron saints who were special guardians, or that a person had the patronage, or right to name successors to a benefice. Patronage later came to be used generally in respect of the arts and of politics. In the former case, patrons provided resources for artistic projects. In the latter case, persons in positions of power were able to bestow titles, offices, and incomes on their followers.

Pearse, Patrick (1879–1916)

Irish nationalist

Trained as a BARRISTER, Pearse worked as a writer and schoolteacher. A member of the Gaelic League, he became disenchanted with IRISH HOME RULE and joined the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) and the Irish Volunteers (1913). He believed that a blood sacrifice was necessary to mobilize sentiment for an Irish republic. His opportunity came when the IRB council planned the EASTER REBELLION in 1916. Pearse read the proclamation of the Irish Republic from the steps of the General Post Office after it was seized by the rebels. He took the position of president of the provisional government, but five days later he was forced to surrender. A few days after that he was executed. The rebellion was futile, the British response was brutal, and the cause of the republic was greatly enhanced.

Peasants’ Revolt (1381)

The first and largest popular uprising in English history was caused by a conjunction of critical events: effects of the repeated appearance of the plague, or BLACK DEATH; government efforts to enforce wage controls in the Statute of Labourers; losses in the wars with France; and, finally, imposition of a POLL TAX. Groups of peasants protested in Essex, Kent, and later in other counties. Rebel armies marched on LONDON, and one of their leaders was the renegade priest John BALL. They executed the ARCHBISHOP of CANTERBURY and the lord treasurer, as well as other officials. The anger of the rebels was not

directed at the 13-year-old king, RICHARD II, who promised to abolish serfdom when he met the rebels at Smithfield. But after the rebels withdrew, the king renounced his concession, and rebel leaders were rounded up and executed. Although the revolt seemed to be a failure, the poll tax was abandoned.

Peel, Sir Robert (1788–1850) prime minister, 1834–1835, 1841–1846

Son of a wealthy cotton manufacturer in Lancashire, Peel was educated at Harrow and Christ Church, OXFORD UNIVERSITY, where he excelled in classics and mathematics. He entered PARLIA- MENT in 1809 for a seat in IRELAND. An unusually able politician, he was made chief secretary for Ireland in 1812. In 1822 he became home secretary and was responsible for reform of the CRIMINAL LAW and the establishment of the metropolitan POLICE (1829). Although a staunch opponent of FRANCHISE reform, once the act of 1832 was passed, Peel recognized the change as permanent, and in his TAMWORTH MANIFESTO (1834) he made the case for a CONSERVATIVE PARTY. After a brief term in office, he made his mark as PRIME MINISTER in the 1840s. He had become a supporter of FREE TRADE and TARIFF reforms, and even the repeal of the CORN LAWS in 1846. This step split his party, as the protectionist wing (led by Benjamin DISRAELI) refused to support him. Peel was thus forced to resign.

peerage

From the earliest times there have been ranks of nobility, from the Anglo-Saxon EARL to the Norman BARON. By the 14th century, due to the emerging HOUSE OF LORDS and an ambitious body of aristocrats competing in war with their French cousins, some further definition became necessary. The ranks of DUKE (1337), MARQUESS (1385), and VISCOUNT (1440) were established with that order of precedence, followed by the earls and barons. The numbers were small—about 50 English peers by 1600. The STUART dynasty inflated the peerage to about 130 by 1641. The English

peerage continued to grow, and peers of SCOT- LAND (in 1707) and IRELAND (in 1801) were added to the HOUSE OF LORDS. The size of that body (which also included spiritual peers—BISH- OPs and ARCHBISHOPs) was inflated further by the creation of life peers, especially after 1958. There were well over 1,200 at the end of the 20th century, just before the announced “reform” or demise of the House of Lords.

Pelham, Henry (1696–1754) prime minister, 1743–1754

A MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from 1717, brother of the duke of NEWCASTLE, and supporter of Robert WALPOLE, Pelham was secretary at war in 1724 and paymaster of the forces in 1730. After Walpole’s fall, Pelham became first lord of the TREASURY in 1743. When GEORGE II tried to replace the Pelhams in 1746, they and their supporters resigned, and the king was forced to take them back, as no other group could manage PAR- LIAMENT. This was an important stage in the developing conventions of CABINET government. Pelham was a very successful first minister, proven by the political turmoil which followed his sudden death in 1754.

Pelham-Holles, Thomas See NEWCASTLE,

THOMAS PELHAM-HOLLES, DUKE OF.

penal laws

1.A number of laws penalizing Roman Catholic worship were enacted in the 16th and 17th centuries. The adherents to the old faith (RECUSANTS, i.e., those who would not take the oaths of UNIFORMITY) were driven underground, forced to practice their faith in secret and risking charges of treason. Enforcement tended to fluctuate, and the last severe episode coincided with the rebellions of the

JACOBITES. From about 1770 there was progressive relief from the laws.

2.The laws to “prevent the growth of popery” (1695–1727), mainly directed at Irish Roman

Catholics, were the tools of a more extensive campaign to exclude them from political life and deprive them of economic and social capacities. Catholics were disarmed, prohibited from owning horses worth more than £5, from buying or inheriting land, teaching schools, pursuing professions, and of course from being served by their own clergy (priests were liable to TRANSPORTATION). By the third quarter of the 18th century, these laws were falling out of use and relief acts were passed to repeal them (1778, 1792, 1829).

Penn, William (1644–1718)

Quaker

Born in LONDON, Penn studied at OXFORD UNI- VERSITY and at Lincoln’s Inn, and he became a leader and spokesman for the QUAKERS. To repay a debt to his father (a former admiral), CHARLES II gave him a grant in 1681 for land in America, on which Penn founded the COLONY of Pennsylvania. His constitution for the colony provided for religious toleration, and it was initially very prosperous, although French and Indian incursions later affected it adversely.

People’s Charter See CHARTIST MOVEMENT.

Pepys, Samuel (1633–1703) naval administrator, diarist

Born in LONDON, the son of a tailor, Pepys was educated at St. Paul’s School and Magdalene Col-

lege, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. While he was a

member of PARLIAMENT and president of the ROYAL SOCIETY, he is best known in his role as a naval administrator and a revealing diarist. He was made a clerk to the NAVY board in 1660 and first secretary of the ADMIRALTY in 1673. Throughout the 1660s he kept a detailed diary in shorthand, only deciphered and published in six volumes in 1825. It contains detailed descriptions of events such as the FIRE OF LONDON and the plague of 1666, and he provides innumerable minor insights into life in the RESTORATION era.

Perceval, Spencer (1762–1812) prime minister, 1809–1812

The younger son of Lord Egremont, Perceval was educated at Harrow and Trinity College, CAM-

BRIDGE UNIVERSITY. A BARRISTER and an EVANGEL-

ICAL Christian, he entered PARLIAMENT in 1796. A strong TORY and an effective speaker, he was appointed solicitor general in 1801 and attorney general in 1802. Perceval became CHANCELLOR OF

THE EXCHEQUER in 1807 and PRIME MINISTER in

1809. He maintained financial stability despite the costs of the French war. He was assassinated in the lobby of the HOUSE OF COMMONS in 1812 by a deranged bankrupt merchant.

Percy, Henry, earl of Northumberland

See NORTHUMBERLAND, HENRY PERCY, EARL OF.

Percy, Sir Henry (1364–1403) soldier

The son of Henry Percy, earl of NORTHUMBER- LAND, Sir Henry Percy fought in France and on the Scottish border, where his daring and bravery earned him the nickname “Hotspur.” Both he and his father served as warden of the MARCHES (Scottish borders), and they defeated a Scottish invasion at Homildon Hill in 1402. They joined in the rebellion of Owen GLEN- DOWER, and Hotspur was en route to meet the Welsh leader when HENRY IV intercepted and killed him at the Battle of Shrewsbury.

Peterloo massacre (1819)

In the aftermath of the Battle of WATERLOO, social and political unrest combined with economic distress to produce a series of large demonstrations and apparent threats to public order. Plans were made to hold a mass meeting at St. Peter’s Fields outside Manchester, and more than 60,000 people assembled there on August 16, 1819. The authorities decided to arrest Henry “Orator” HUNT as he was about to address them. In the confusion and clamor, the mounted yeomanry, plus a unit of Hussars, drew their sabres

and moved into the unarmed crowd; 11 men and women were killed, and hundreds were wounded. Disgusted radicals satirized this “victory” of British forces. The frightened government in Westminster responded by passing the repressive SIX ACTS in December 1819.

Petition of Right (1628)

The confrontation between CHARLES I and the HOUSE OF COMMONS came to a head when the king tried to collect a FORCED LOAN in 1627, and the FIVE KNIGHTS’ CASE upheld his power to do so. A petition of right was an ancient legal device, and here it was used to state the grievances against the king: that PARLIAMENT had the right to consent to TAXATION, and that there should be no arbitrary imprisonment, no billeting of troops, and no MARTIAL LAW. Charles accepted the petition, claiming that he was merely recognizing existing rights.

Petty, Sir William (1623–1687) statistician

Petty studied in ENGLAND and on the continent, earned doctorates in physics and medicine, and taught at OXFORD UNIVERSITY. When he took the post of physician to the ARMY in IRELAND, he also became involved in the problematic redistribution of LAND there, especially to the Cromwellian soldiers. He proposed and conducted a topographical survey, and in the course of this work, he became fascinated with what he called “political arithmetic,” or what is known today as statistics. A founding member of the ROYAL SOCIETY, Petty wrote Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality (1662), Political Arithmetic (1690), and The Political Anatomy of Ireland (1691).

Petty, William See SHELBURNE, WILLIAM

PETTY, EARL OF.

Petty-Fitzmaurice, Henry See LANS-

DOWNE, HENRY PETTY-MAURICE, MARQUESS OF.

petty sessions

A meeting of two or more JUSTICES OF THE PEACE during the intervals between QUARTER SESSIONS. The meeting is held for less serious judicial and administrative business, e.g., minor offenses, licensing, or POOR LAW settlements. This is now the work of the MAGISTRATEs’ courts.

Pilgrimage of Grace (1536)

When the initial phase of DISSOLUTION of the monasteries began, it was aimed at smaller monastic houses, most of which provided essential welfare for their rural communities. Across the north of ENGLAND, from Lincolnshire through Yorkshire, groups of YEOMAN farmers and GENTRY formed protests. Lawyer Robert ASKE emerged as a leader of what became known as the Pilgrimage of Grace, but the large and dangerous rising was disorganized. King HENRY VIII at first promised concessions and pardons, but after new disturbances in 1537, leaders were arrested and executed. The disorder demonstrated the weakness of royal power, and in 1537 a Council of the North was created in an attempt to remedy the problem.

Pitt, William (1759–1806)

(Pitt “the younger”)

prime minister, 1783–1801, 1804–06

The second son of William PITT, earl of Chatham, Pitt “the younger” entered Pembroke College,

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, at age 14. Later he was

admitted to Lincoln’s Inn and called to the bar in 1780, but his career was destined to be in politics. In PARLIAMENT from 1781, he was a critic of Lord NORTH and a proponent of parliamentary reform and ECONOMICAL REFORM. In 1783, when GEORGE III dismissed the coalition of North and Charles James FOX, Pitt took office as the youngest PRIME MINISTER in British history (age 24). His reform ideas had varied fates. A parliamentary reform bill in 1785 was defeated, and he did not pursue the matter. On the other hand, he did continue to reduce the number and value of government places, especially as a way of reducing expenses later during the war years.

In 1788 there was a crisis as the king’s illness created demand for a REGENCY. Pitt resisted the demands, and he was rewarded with staunch support from the recovered king in 1789. That year saw the outbreak of revolution in France, which Pitt at first did not see as a threat to peace and stability. But when the French monarchy was overthrown and radical ideas seemed to penetrate all parts of the islands, he became a stout enforcer of the establishment and a determined adversary of France. War came in 1793, and Pitt put together a series of coalitions, none of them fully satisfactory. Meanwhile, in domestic affairs he made increasingly tough policy choices: outlawing political assemblies (1793), suspending the HABEAS CORPUS act (1794), and imposing MARTIAL LAW in IRELAND (1796). When rebellion broke out in Ireland in 1798, it was crushed easily, but the circumstances of war made it seem necessary to have a formal UNION of GREAT BRITAIN and Ireland, for strategic purposes and for public order. Part of Pitt’s plan called for the full participation of Catholics in the new regime, as they might be valuable allies against the atheistic French and even grateful companions in a newly constituted Ireland. But George III refused, saying that his coronation oath to support the established church would be violated by any such concessions. Pitt resigned in 1801. He returned in 1804 and created a new coalition against Napoleon, but when it was beaten at Austerlitz, Pitt, seemingly exhausted by his efforts, died in January 1806.

Pitt, William, first earl of Chatham

(1708–1778)

prime minister, 1766–1768

Pitt’s grandfather had made a fortune in

and William went to Eton and OXFORD UNIVERSITY before he entered PARLIAMENT in 1735. He was a longtime MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT and a critic of Hanoverian influence on British affairs, and so he only latterly rose to a position of political power. After the early losses of the SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, Pitt joined the government of the duke of NEWCASTLE and was an extremely successful war minister

(1757–61). When he proposed to launch attacks on Spain, the CABINET balked, and Pitt resigned. The new king GEORGE III preferred Pitt to any of his other ministers, and in 1766 he made him earl of Chatham and head of the government. Unfortunately, by this point Pitt was suffering from mental stress or illness, and after a short term of ineffective government, he resigned in 1768. The rest of his political life was spent in intermittent attacks on the government’s policy in America. He collapsed and died during a debate in the

HOUSE OF LORDS in May 1778.

Place, Francis (1771–1854) radical

The son of a LONDON baker, Place was apprenticed to a maker of breeches. He organized a strike of these workers in 1793, which was the beginning of his involvement in the reform movements of the early 19th century. A member of the London Corresponding Society in his early days, he was later a key figure in the repeal of the COMBINATION ACTS (1824), which helped to foster the growth of TRADE UNIONs. He was an active campaigner for the reform bill in 1832, and he supported the CHARTIST MOVEMENT. His general view was that workers ought to become well-informed defenders of their interests, but that they should ally with the middle class to achieve political goals more quickly.

placemen

The holders of pensions or positions in the gift of the Crown or the government. There was a long history of attempts to limit the placemen’s numbers and influence, dating from the later years of the 17th century. As government continued to grow, the source of this complaint did likewise. While it was never sure that places were payment for future loyalty instead of rewards for past service, the placemen’s influence was a constant source of suspicion of undue influence on political behavior. Place acts in the early 18th century required any holder of such a position who was elected to PARLIAMENT to resign and