Файл: Great Britain_0816044740.pdf

Roundheads

The slur used by royalists to describe the rebels in the parliamentary army and, more generally, all of those who opposed CHARLES I. The name apparently came from the PURITAN style of haircut close around the head, as opposed to the long, flowing hair favored by royalists (aka “cavaliers”).

Rowntree, Benjamin Seebohm

(1871–1954) social reformer

Born into a QUAKER family, chocolate manufacturers in York, Rowntree conducted a detailed survey, published as Poverty: A Study of Town Life

(1901). He identified primary poverty as the lack of basic requirements of food, fuel, shelter, and clothing; secondary poverty as the lack of further essentials such as medicine. In his study he found that over 9 percent were in the first category and nearly 18 percent in the second. He made later studies of York in 1936 and 1950. Meanwhile he ran the welfare department of the Ministry of Munitions (1915–18), wrote The Human Needs of Labour (1918), and campaigned in the 1920s and ’30s for improved policies on social welfare.

Royal Academy

British artists had complained of the lack of support for their profession compared to other countries, and in 1768 GEORGE III approved the founding of an academy for painters, sculptors, and architects. A free school of art, annual exhibitions which used proceeds to support indigent artists, and regular meetings of the 40 elected members were prescribed in the founding charter. The Royal Academy has been housed in Burlington House, Piccadilly, since 1869.

Royal African Company

Chartered in 1662, the company consisted of traders who transported slaves as well as gold,

ivory, and redwood. Its monopoly was under attack by 1700, and it lost the right to trade slaves with the Spanish empire to the South Sea Company in 1713. It was ended in 1821.

See also SOUTH SEA BUBBLE.

Royal Air Force (RAF)

The military use of aircraft was developed rapidly in the first years of the 20th century, and the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service were among the earliest bodies involved. The RAF was formed in 1918, at first as a merger of its predecessors. They were not immediately dispersed, and indeed the RAF had to struggle for recognition from the older services. By the 1930s it had built a bomber force, and in the later ’30s it developed fighter defense and radar. As WORLD WAR II began, the force was outnumbered and outclassed at first by the larger Luftwaffe of Germany. The advantage of a defensive role, plus the premature launch of the BLITZ against the civilian population, contributed to a remarkable victory in the Battle of BRITAIN. Once that was achieved, however, there was an even greater task of mounting effective air power over the far-flung fields of battle, from AFRICA to Asia to the European continent, especially Germany. With massive support from the United States, British planes began to inflict great damage on German forces and German factories. In the postwar period, the RAF became a major element of defense, with deployment of jet aircraft armed with nuclear weapons.

royal commission

Broadly, this refers to any royal order to act on behalf of the Crown. Specifically, it denotes a body commissioned by the ministers of the Crown to inquire into a particular area of activity (charities, POOR LAWs, TRADE UNIONS, municipal corporations, public health, public schools, and UNIVERSITIES were some of the early 19thcentury examples). The commission is addressed to a group of experienced persons, and powers

are granted to summon witnesses, collect information, and make reports. The reports are directed to the leaders of the government, who in turn decide whether and how to use them. The inquiries have only the influence which their prestigious members, the collected evidence, and the prevailing climate of opinion may lend to them. Only the government of the day will determine which of them is to have a meaningful outcome.

Royal Exchange

The first Royal Exchange, a meeting place for merchants, bankers, and traders, was opened by Queen ELIZABETH I in 1571. Located in the city of LONDON, it was modeled on the exchange of Antwerp. Destroyed by fire (1666 and 1838), it was rebuilt. It is now the location of the financial futures market.

Royal Irish Constabulary

A centrally controlled POLICE force was first developed in IRELAND under the direction of Robert PEEL, the chief secretary. The Peace Preservation Force was a body of constables, led by a paid magistrate, sent to areas afflicted with agrarian violence (1814). These forces were first paid for by the local authorities, and in 1822 they were followed by a new County Constabulary. In 1836 the Irish Constabulary was created; it was given the designation “royal” in 1867. This force was a mainstay of law and order until 1922, when it was disbanded in the South but found a successor force in NORTHERN IRELAND in The Royal Ulster Constabulary.

Royal Society

With its charter dating from 1662, the Royal Society is the oldest scientific body in the world. Discussion of religion and politics were exclu- ded—no mean task in its early period—and the society began to publish a journal, Philosophical Transactions, which still continues. Some of its

prominent early members were Christopher WREN and Isaac NEWTON. However, most of its members were, until the later 19th century, amateur scientists and gentlemen. Then it became a more formal body, with parliamentary grants for research. The society also provides advice to governments on scientific matters.

royal supremacy

The centerpiece of the REFORMATION in ENGLAND was HENRY VIII’s assertion of the king’s supreme power, or royal supremacy, in church and state. The power was implied in the SUBMISSION OF

THE CLERGY (1532) and in the ACT in RESTRAINT OF

APPEALS to Rome (1533). In 1534 the king’s authority was “confirmed” by the Act of Supremacy. This was repealed by MARY I in 1554 and reinstated by ELIZABETH I in 1559.

rugby

This variant of FOOTBALL appeared in the early 19th century. Players picked up the ball and ran with it, until they were stopped by opponents. Definition and rules followed, particularly at the time of the founding of the Football Association (1863). A Rugby Football Union was formed in 1871, and Scottish, Irish, and Welsh unions soon followed. A breakaway group formed the Rugby Football League in 1922, introducing a number of variations in the rules. Later in the 20th century the sport became professionalized.

Rump Parliament (1648–1653)

The derogatory name for the remnant of the LONG PARLIAMENT (1640–60) which remained sitting after PRIDE’S PURGE in 1648. Colonel Pride had prevented the entry of those members who supported reinstating the king. Some 231 members were excluded, and the remaining 70 MPs worked with the ARMY to conduct the trial and execution of CHARLES I and establish the institutions of the COMMONWEALTH OF

ENGLAND.

Rupert, Prince (1619–1682) royalist commander

The son of Elizabeth of Bohemia, daughter of JAMES VI AND I. Prince Rupert was the leading royalist cavalry commander, famous for lightning raids and impressive movements of cavalry units. He held the overall command at the Battle of NASEBY, and later he surrendered Bristol to the rebel forces. That angered the king, and Rupert left the country. Later he served as a naval commander and eventually led British forces in the DUTCH WARS of 1665 and 1672.

Ruskin, John (1819–1900) art critic

The son of a wealthy wine merchant, Ruskin was the most influential art critic of the 19th century. He was appalled at the cultural influence of industrial development, and in reaction he extolled the art of the Middle Ages, called for a return to older values, and wanted art to be seen as an expression of moral values. He wrote The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849) and The Stones of Venice (1851–53). He was a professor at OXFORD UNIVERSITY, and he endowed the drawing school there. His private life was unhappy, and he suffered bouts of mental illness later in life.

Russell, Bertrand Arthur William Russell, third earl (1872–1970)

philosopher, pacifist

The grandson of Lord John RUSSELL, Bertrand Russell was a brilliant mathematician, and in 1911 he published, with Alfred North WHITEHEAD, Principia Mathematica. The following year he published

The Problems of Philosophy. Russell was deprived of his post at CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY in 1915 because of his opposition to WORLD WAR I. His continued support of conscientious objectors led to imprisonment in 1918 for seditious writings. He was in America during WORLD WAR II, and he published his very successful History of Western Philosophy in 1945. He was awarded the Order of Merit in 1949 and the Nobel Prize in literature in 1950. In his

last great cause, he cofounded the CAMPAIGN FOR NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT in 1958, was its first president, and was jailed in 1961.

Russell, Lord John (1792–1878) prime minister, 1846–1852, 1865–1866

Third son of the duke of Bedford, Russell entered PARLIAMENT in 1813 and was an early advocate of REFORM ACTS. He drafted the reform bill in 1831 for Earl GREY’s WHIG ministry. He also served as home secretary and colonial secretary (1834–41). When Robert PEEL resigned after the repeal of the CORN LAWS, Russell became PRIME MINISTER (1846–52). He later served twice as foreign secretary, and one more time as prime minster. Ironically, in that last office, he was the author of further parliamentary reform which was defeated, only to be surpassed by the 1867 reform act, carried by his TORY opponents.

Russell, William (1820–1907) journalist

Born into a poor Irish middle-class family, Russell worked for The Times, and he was sent to cover the CRIMEAN WAR. His reports took 10 days to reach London, but they exposed many of the shortcomings of the British ARMY there, and they had a great political impact. He also reported on the INDIAN MUTINY, the American Civil War, the Prussian wars of 1866 and 1870, and the ZULU war. Russell pioneered modern journalistic coverage of world conflicts.

Rutherford, Ernest Rutherford, first baron (1871–1937)

scientist

Born in NEW ZEALAND, Rutherford worked at McGill University in CANADA, where he discovered radioactivity, winning the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1908. Meanwhile he had moved to Manchester, ENGLAND, in 1907, and then became professor of experimental physics and director of the Cavendish Laboratory at CAMBRIDGE UNIVER-

SITY in 1919. There in 1932 it was discovered that the uranium atom could be split, producing enormous amounts of “atomic” energy.

Ruthven raid (1582)

The intense rivalry between factions of Scottish nobles resulted in the kidnapping of the 16-year- old JAMES VI by the Protestant earl of Gowrie (William Ruthven) and his colleagues. They were afraid of the influence of the current favorite, the king’s Catholic cousin Esmé Stuart, the duke of LENNOX. The king was held captive for 10 months, and Lennox fled to France, but when James escaped, he took revenge on his captors. Gowrie was executed in 1584, and the king developed a lifelong dislike for Protestant extremism.

Rye House plot (1683)

In the wake of the EXCLUSION crisis, a plot was discovered in which CHARLES II and his brother

James (the future JAMES VII AND II) were to be captured (and possibly executed) at Rye House on their return from the races at Newmarket. Their return was earlier than expected, foiling the plot, but the occasion was used to arrest many of the WHIG opponents of the Crown, and it led to the trial and execution of Algernon SID- NEY and William Russell (1683), and the forced exile of others.

Ryswick, Treaty of (1697)

The end of King William’s War (also known as the Nine Years’ War, 1688–97) saw Louis XIV of France accept the terms of his coalition opponents (England, Holland, the Holy Roman Empire, and Spain). He surrendered most captured territory, acknowledged WILLIAM III as king of ENGLAND, and withdrew his support for JAMES VII AND II, the former king. The peace was short, as it was only four years until the start of the

War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION.

Sacheverell, Dr. Henry (1674–1724) political preacher

Sacheverell was a high-church ANGLICAN and Fellow of Magdalen College, OXFORD UNIVERSITY, who preached a pair of angry sermons against DISSENTERS, leading to his IMPEACHMENT and trial. Those events provoked riots in LONDON in 1710, in which half a dozen dissenting chapels were destroyed. He was suspended from preaching for three years, but upon the WHIG administration being dismissed, he was reinstated by the TORY government.

St. Albans, battles of

May 22, 1455: Regarded as the first battle of the Wars of the ROSES, this battle was actually a skirmish in the town, after Richard, duke of YORK’s, protectorate had ended. Several of the leading Lancastrian noblemen were killed, HENRY VI was captured, and the aristocratic rivalry turned into civil war.

February 17, 1461: Queen Margaret (see MAR- GARET OF ANJOU) attacked, following her victory at Wakefield, and rescued HENRY VI from yet another period of captivity. However, the new Yorkist leader reached LONDON first and was proclaimed as EDWARD IV.

St. Albans, viscount See BACON, FRANCIS,

VISCOUNT ST. ALBANS.

St. John, Henry See BOLINGBROKE, HENRY

ST. JOHN, VISCOUNT.

St. Leger, Sir Anthony (1496–1559) lord deputy of Ireland, 1540–1548

St. Leger worked for Thomas CROMWELL and led a commission to IRELAND for him. When he became lord deputy in 1540, it was his task to begin to assert royal authority more firmly and extensively (1540). The plan involved declaring HENRY VIII’s kingship of Ireland (1541) and converting Gaelic chiefs to royal vassals with a policy called “surrender and regrant,” wherein the Irish leaders surrendered native titles in exchange for AngloIrish noble rank. This was done in a general atmosphere of conciliation, but it was only partly successful. St. Leger returned for two more short terms as deputy (1551 and 1553), but there was much opposition to his strategy and it was overtaken by more aggressive methods on both sides.

St. Paul’s Cathedral

The site of this LONDON landmark had a cathedral in the Anglo-Saxon period, rebuilt several times before a great edifice was built in the Norman period. That gothic structure was a main location for royal ceremonies, but after the REFOR- MATION it was allowed to deteriorate. During the

it was used as a cavalry barracks. Destroyed by the great FIRE OF LONDON (1666), it was rebuilt by Sir Christopher WREN (1705–11). The cathedral became the resting place for military heroes (NELSON, WELLINGTON), and it served as the locale for important state occasions.

St. Vincent See JERVIS, JOHN, EARL ST.

VINCENT.

Salesbury, William (1520–1584)

Welsh scholar

An OXFORD UNIVERSITY graduate and student of LAW, Salesbury converted to Protestantism and devoted himself to writing in Welsh. He composed a Welsh-English dictionary in 1547, and the same year he published a collection of proverbs. These were the first books printed in Welsh. Queen ELIZABETH I commissioned him to translate

the BIBLE and the BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER into

Welsh. Together with Bishop Richard DAVIES, he completed the prayer book and the New Testament by 1567. Later scholars produced better translations, but his work was vital in the history of the Welsh language.

Salisbury, Robert Gascoyne Cecil, marquis of (1830–1903)

prime minister, 1885–1886, 1886–1892, 1895–1902

Conservative leader and staunch defender of established institutions, Lord Salisbury served in PARLIAMENT for half a century. In the HOUSE OF COMMONS for 15 years before he inherited the title, he was especially interested in imperial and foreign affairs. He was secretary for INDIA twice and was foreign secretary before becoming PRIME MINISTER. His first time as premier was as head of a minority government; in the latter terms he had the support of LIBERAL UNIONISTS, which gave him a majority but also restricted his policy making. For most of his time as prime minister, Salisbury was also the head of the FOREIGN OFFICE. His area of expertise was in diplomacy, where GREAT BRITAIN, without any formal allies, tried to maintain a leading position in Europe and to retain world authority through the BRITISH

EMPIRE AND COMMONWEALTH. The imperial role

was seriously injured by the events of the BOER WAR (1899–1902), in which Britain appeared to be bullying two small colonial states in SOUTH AFRICA, employing excessive force and barbaric treatment (concentration camps in particular). The war was “won” by the British, and an enlarged Union of South Africa was created. Meanwhile, at home Salisbury had resisted IRISH HOME

RULE (as leader of the opposition in the HOUSE OF LORDS, he smashed the second home rule bill by a vote of 419–41 in 1893). When in office, he grudgingly accepted reforms in local government, education, and Irish land purchase, in order to maintain his majority.

Salvation Army

William BOOTH had founded the Christian Revival Association in 1865, in Whitechapel (LONDON). Initially a mission community, it took its new name of Salvation Army and its militaristic organization in 1878. “General” Booth and his wife used open meetings, brass bands, and banners to energize their EVANGELICAL message. Forsaking sacramental religion, they promoted temperance, abstinence, and social action. The CHURCH OF ENGLAND was moved to copy them by organizing a “church army” in 1882. The movement spread to other countries, especially to the United States, where it had great success.

Samuel, Herbert Louis Samuel, first viscount (1870–1963)

Liberal Party leader

Lord Samuel sat in PARLIAMENT from 1902, serving in minor offices, and he was at the HOME OFFICE in 1916 at the time of the EASTER REBEL- LION. He resigned when David LLOYD GEORGE replaced Herbert ASQUITH as PRIME MINISTER. In 1920 Samuel took the post of high commissioner of PALESTINE. On his return in 1925, he headed a commission to investigate the coal industry. Its recommendations touched off the GENERAL STRIKE in 1926. Samuel returned to Parliament in 1929, had a role in forming the national government of 1931, and was the LIBERAL PARTY leader. His PEERAGE was bestowed in 1937, and he led his party in the HOUSE OF LORDS, 1944–55.

Sancroft, William (1617–1693) archbishop of Canterbury, 1678–1689

A man of conviction, Sancroft was ejected from his fellowship at CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY by the