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were married two days after her predecessor’s execution. She gave birth to EDWARD VI in 1537 but died soon after. Henry was buried beside her at Windsor 10 years later.

Seymour, Thomas, baron (1508–1549)

The brother of Jane and younger brother of Edward SEYMOUR, Thomas Seymour gained influence at Court, and after the death of HENRY VIII, he married the king’s widow, Catherine PARR. She died in childbirth (1548), and soon it was rumored that Thomas was planning to marry Princess Elizabeth (later ELIZABETH I). He was accused of conspiring against his brother, condemned by an act of ATTAINDER, and executed.

Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, first earl of (1621–1683)

politician

A long and tangled political career marked one of the early WHIG leaders of the “country” party—i.e., those who opposed the policies of the Court in the later 17th century. Lord Shaftesbury supported the Crown at the outset of the CIVIL WAR, switched and became a leader in the

COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND, but then joined the

opposition in 1654. Pardoned by CHARLES II, he served that monarch as CHANCELLOR OF THE

EXCHEQUER and LORD CHANCELLOR. In the 1670s

he resisted the pro-Catholic policies of the king and was dismissed. He returned to office during the EXCLUSION crisis, continued to rouse opposition to royal policies, and was charged with TREASON. He went into exile in the Netherlands in 1682 and died a year later.

Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, seventh earl of (1801–1885)

reformer

Shaftesbury was a powerful EVANGELICAL leader who campaigned vigorously for the reform of working conditions and the relief of the plight of the poor. He led the fight for a Ten Hours Bill to

limit working hours; he supported FACTORY ACTS mandating improved working conditions; and he campaigned for the Mines Act of 1842, which prohibited the employment of women and children in mines. His deep religious convictions were allied with TORY political principles, and he opposed democratic political reform.

Shakespeare, William (1564–1616) poet, dramatist

Born in Stratford-upon-Avon, son of a glovemaker and later mayor, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway in 1582. He migrated alone to LONDON, where he began an acting career and then became a playwright and, eventually, a theatrical legend. He wrote nearly 40 plays— comedies, histories, and tragedies. The extant texts of these works are not the original versions but come from the First Folio, which was published in 1623, seven years after his death. In addition to the plays, he wrote sonnets (a compilation published in 1609) and other poems. The body of his work had enormous influence on the English language and on the culture of ENGLAND and of Europe.

Shakespeare’s early career is not well documented. As a player and then writer in the theatrical companies of the 1580s and 1590s, he was evidently an early success. When the plague struck LONDON in 1593, the theaters were closed, and the companies were dispersed. At this time Shakespeare published his first volumes of poetry. When performances resumed, Shakespeare worked with The Queen’s Men, the major London players, and his history plays (Richard II, Richard III, Henry IV, Henry V) seem to come from this period as did his Romeo and Juliet. The move to the new Globe Theater coincided with his rise in the theatrical world and the appearance of some of his most important plays: Julius Caesar, As You Like It, Twelfth Night, Hamlet, and All’s Well That Ends Well. He worked with The King’s Men, the major company authorized by JAMES VI AND I, and he produced

Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra,

William Shakespeare, engraved by Benjamin Holl from a print by Arnold Houbraken (Library of Congress)

and Coriolanus. He went into semiretirement at Stratford in 1610. His plays had not been published, as their value was realized in performances and the resulting profit to the company, in which Shakespeare was a partner. The many later editions of his work—and their innumerable performances and adaptations—recognize Shakespeare as a figure of genius and a national treasure.

Sharp, Granville (1734–1813) antislavery reformer

Born in Durham, where his father was a prebendary (clergyman) in the cathedral, Sharp was sent to London at age 15 and apprenticed to a linen draper. He found a post in the ordnance office in 1758. Having met a

runaway slave and tried without success to protect him in court, Sharp studied the subject and published an antislavery tract in 1769. His work was thought to have influenced the decision in the SOMERSET CASE (1772), which said that slavery was not recognized in English law. President of the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade (1787), he helped with the formation of a COLONY for freed slaves (SIERRA LEONE) and the establishment of the abolitionist African Institution. In politics he supported the American Revolution, the Irish movement for an independent PARLIAMENT, and the cause of parliamentary reform. In matters of religion, he founded the Society for the Conversion of the Jews (1808) and the Protestant Union,

which opposed CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION (1813). See also ANTISLAVERY MOVEMENT.

Shaw, George Bernard (1856–1950) dramatist

Born in IRELAND, Shaw came to ENGLAND in 1876. His attempts at novel writing were not successful, and he became a critic and then a playwright. As a member of the FABIAN SOCIETY, he was a vigorous exponent of SOCIALISM, women’s rights, and free thought. His plays were unsettling to the Victorian audience, but they brought wit to the stage while they raised social consciousness. His best-known are Arms and the Man (1894), The Devil’s Disciple (1897), Mrs. Warren’s Profession (1902), John Bull’s Other Island

(1904), Pygmalion (1913), and St. Joan (1923). He won the Nobel Prize in 1925.

Shelburne, William Petty, earl of

(1737–1805)

prime minister, 1782–1783

A follower of William PITT the elder, Lord Shelburne served as a SECRETARY OF STATE (1766–68), but his desire for conciliation of the AMERICAN COLONIES forced him to resign. At the end of the war, he was again secretary of state under Lord

ROCKINGHAM, and when that PRIME MINISTER

died, Shelburne took office briefly. He negotiated the treaty ending the war, but his views in favor of FREE TRADE worried his colleagues, and his government fell.

Shelley, Percy Bysshe (1792–1822) radical poet

Son of a Sussex BARONET and MEMBER OF PARLIA-

MENT, Shelley was raised with a conventional education at Eton and University College, OX- FORD UNIVERSITY. He became increasingly rebellious and eloped two times with three women (Harriett Westbrook, 1811; and Mary STONECRAFT with her stepsister Jane, 1814). His writing reflected an extreme radical and atheist position: Queen Mab (1813), Alastor (1816), The Mask of Anarchy (1819) and Prometheus Unbound

(1820). He settled in Italy, where he died in a boating accident.

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley

(1751–1816) dramatist, politician

The son of an Irish actor and dramatist, Sheridan wrote successful comedies (The School for Scandal, 1777, being the best-known). As manager of the he had an income and an entrée into polite society. He entered PARLIAMENT in 1780, was a follower of Charles James FOX, and held several minor government offices. While he was a noted orator, Sheridan was too extreme in his political views, and he had a disorderly private life, both of which prevented him from having greater political success.

sheriff

The “reeve” was an Anglo-Saxon officer, and by the 11th century kings had begun to appoint a reeve for each shire (see COUNTY), responsible for collecting taxes and keeping order. Their powers were augmented after the Norman Conquest, as the “shire reeve” was a useful royal agent. Those

powers came to be seen as excessive, and other local officials (e.g., the JUSTICE OF THE PEACE) were created, eventually diminishing the role of the sheriff. In SCOTLAND the same office existed, but it was less powerful. In the 18th century the Scottish sheriff became a district judge and remains so today.

ship money

The medieval tax levied on port towns in wartime to finance the naval forces required for their protection. CHARLES I used this tax to raise revenues while no PARLIAMENT was in session (1634–40). The extension of the levy to inland towns was resisted, but in the case of John HAMP- DEN, the courts validated the king’s right to do so (1637). Parliament declared the practice illegal in 1641.

shire See COUNTY.

Short Parliament (1640)

In April 1640 CHARLES I was forced to summon a PARLIAMENT, his first in 11 years, because he needed funds to field an army to resist the Scots. However, members of the HOUSE OF COMMONS were more interested in airing their accumulated grievances over religion and TAXATION. After three weeks the king dissolved this unruly body; yet the problems remained, and he summoned another Parliament in November. That body was not formally dissolved until 1660— hence the respective names of the “short” and “long” parliaments.

See also LONG PARLIAMENT.

Shrewsbury, Elizabeth Talbot,

countess of See “BESS OF HARDWICK.”

Sidmouth, viscount See ADDINGTON,

HENRY, VISCOUNT SIDMOUTH.

Sidney, Algernon (1622–1683) republican

Sidney fought at the Battle of MARSTON MOOR and served in the Council of State (1652, 1659). He remained abroad after the RESTORATION. When pardoned, he returned in 1677 and supported the WHIG opposition. He was arrested in 1683 and convicted of conspiring in the RYE HOUSE PLOT. The manuscript of his Discourses Concerning Government, which approved tyrannicide, was used in evidence against him, and he was executed. The book was later published in 1698.

Sidney, Sir Henry (1529–1586) lord deputy of Ireland

Sidney grew up at the court of EDWARD VI, served on diplomatic missions, and went to IRELAND in 1556, returning as deputy in 1565. Meanwhile he had been made lord president of the Council in the Marches of Wales, which post he held until his death. While in Ireland he put down the rebellion of Shane O’NEILL, but he resigned in 1571. Recalled in 1575, he again faced rebels and the famously stingy government of Queen ELIZ- ABETH I. He was the father of Sir Philip SIDNEY.

Sidney, Sir Philip (1554–1586) soldier, poet

The son of Sir Henry SIDNEY, Philip Sidney held a variety of posts in Elizabethan government. His Protestant zeal showed in his strong views on Queen ELIZABETH I’s suitors, in his activity in colonial projects, and in his support for Protestants in the Netherlands. It was there, as the governor of Flushing, that he was mortally wounded in the siege of Zutphen (1586). His written work (all published posthumously) included Arcadia (1590); a sonnet sequence, Astrophel and Stella (1592); and

Defense of Poetry (1595).

Sierra Leone

A COLONY on the west coast of AFRICA, originally designed to be the home of freed slaves. The

British abolitionists organized the Sierre Leone Company (chartered in 1790) and established Freetown. Colonial status came in 1808. When the colonists expanded inland, the hinterland was made a PROTECTORATE in 1896. Independence was granted to the colony and protectorate in 1961. A republic was proclaimed in 1971, and it became a one-party state in 1978. A military coup in 1992 launched a period of instability and internal warfare.

signet

A small royal seal, appearing in the early 14th century, used to authenticate warrants for the PRIVY SEAL and the GREAT SEAL. Intended to give the king or his advisers more control over business, it was kept by secretaries and later by secretaries of state.

Simnel, Lambert (1475–1535) pretender

Simnel claimed to be Edward, earl of Warwick, the nephew of EDWARD IV. He was crowned in DUBLIN in 1487, recognized by many Yorkist followers, and led a force to ENGLAND. This plot had a fatal flaw: the true nephew was a prisoner of HENRY VII and thus easily shown to the public to foil the plot. The king’s forces defeated the insurgents at the Battle of Stoke, and Simnel, regarded as harmless, was pardoned and put to work in the royal kitchen.

Simon, Sir John, viscount (1873–1954)

Liberal politician

Born in Manchester, Simon’s parents were Welsh. He attended Fettes College and Wadham College, OXFORD UNIVERSITY. Called to the bar in 1898, he entered PARLIAMENT in 1906. He was made solicitor general in 1910, attorney general in 1913, and home secretary in 1915. He resigned from the CABINET in 1916 over conscription and joined the Royal Flying Corps in France. Returning to parliament in 1922, he led a major inquiry

into the constitution of INDIA (1927–30). He also served in the National Government as foreign secretary (1931–35), home secretary (1935–37),

CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER (1937–40), and LORD CHANCELLOR (1940–45).

Singapore

This COLONY was established in 1819 by Sir Stamford RAFFLES. Its economic value was shown in the rapid increase of trade, and it was made a crown colony in 1867. A major naval base was established in 1921 as the strategic value of Singapore’s rubber, tin, and oil became clear. The base was easy prey to Japanese invasion in 1942. The colony received a constitution in 1955 and separate government in 1959. Briefly part of the Federation of MALAYSIA, it became fully independent in 1965.

sinking fund

A reserve established to pay off interest and principal of the national DEBT. The sinking fund was conceived by Robert WALPOLE and first employed in 1717. It did reduce the debt somewhat, but some of the fund was diverted to other uses. In 1786 a new version was established, in which dividends were used to pay off debt and controls were more strict. But the high cost of borrowing during the war years (1789–1815) actually made the debt grow. Similar plans were also used later (1875 and 1923).

Sinn Féin

An organization aimed at Irish autonomy; the GAELIC expression is translated as “we ourselves,” or “ourselves alone.” Arthur GRIFFITH was the founder of Sinn Féin (1905), and at first it was not a very radical group. One of his proposals for Irish government was the establishment of a dual MONARCHY, like that of Austria-Hungary. But with the events of the next decade, especially the EASTER REBELLION (1916), the hopes for some sort of constitutional

home rule were in decline. Moreover, the British authorities mistakenly christened the events of 1916 as the “Sinn Féin rebellion,” when in fact that group had no responsibility for the uprising. However, the organization obliged by taking the cue, winning the 1918 election, and forming a provisional government in DUBLIN. In the fighting that followed (1919–21) the IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY took the lead, and Sinn Féin became its political agency. This placed it outside the government of the IRISH FREE STATE, when the republicans rejected the ANGLO-IRISH TREATY of 1922 and began a bloody civil war. A split occurred in 1926, with a large bloc of the party returning to normal political action as the Fianna Fáil party. Sinn Féin remained a marginal group until the “troubles” in NORTHERN IRELAND (1969–98) gave it a stage on which to revive the old themes of republicanism. Arguably the party was much more successful in ULSTER than it had been in the republic, and at the end of the 20th century it was poised to be a part of a new government in the North.

Six Acts (1819)

After the PETERLOO MASSACRE, the government was afraid of the public reaction and the prospect of more mass meetings or other disturbances. Thus it cracked down with measures known as the Six Acts, which prohibited meetings of more than 50 people, allowed JUSTICES OF THE PEACE to search homes for arms, banned military drilling by civilians, toughened penalties for SEDITION, limited the rights of accused persons, and increased stamp duties on newspapers. The measures were an overreaction, especially since improving economic conditions soon reduced support for the radicals.

slave trade

Traffic in African slaves was probably a longstanding practice in AFRICA itself. Of course slavery had been known in the British Isles, among Celtic peoples, Roman occupiers, and their

descendants down to the 12th century. But it was with European colonization that a new phase began. The demand for a workforce increased steadily, first for the Portuguese and the Spanish and later for British and French colonies. By the 18th century GREAT BRITAIN’s role in this barbarous commerce was booming. Some estimates put the number at 2.5 million carried in British ships, out of a total trade of more than 6 million. British colonies in North America took about 350,000 and in the WEST INDIES close to 1.5 million during the 18th century. The production of sugar, tobacco, rice, and latterly cotton provided the demand. By the end of the 18th century, the ANTISLAVERY MOVEMENT to end the trade was gathering strength in Britain, and it was abolished in 1807.

Slim, William Joseph Slim, viscount

(1891–1970) field marshal

Educated at King Edward’s School, Birmingham, Slim was commissioned in 1914. After serving in the Middle East (1915–16), he was transferred to INDIA. He occupied staff positions there between the wars, and in 1940 he commanded Indian units fighting in AFRICA, the Middle East, and ultimately in BURMA. There he captured Rangoon in 1945 and he was made commander in chief of forces in Southeast Asia. He became field marshal and chief of the Imperial General Staff in 1948, and later served as governor-gen-

eral of AUSTRALIA.

Smiles, Samuel (1812–1904) writer

A successful popularizer of Victorian ideals, Smiles had been a doctor and a journalist. His most successful book was Self-Help (1859), which gave “illustrations of character, conduct, and perseverance” drawn particularly from the individual efforts of successful entrepreneurs. He argued that institutions “can give a man no active help” and that man must be indepen- dent—something that “has in all times been a

marked feature in the English character.” Smiles wanted to instill industry, thrift, and high moral standards in his middleand lower-class audience. He also wrote the very popular Lives of the Engineers (1861–62).

Smith, Adam (1723–1790) philosopher, economist

After his education at Glasgow University, Smith studied at OXFORD UNIVERSITY and returned to Glasgow as professor of logic and later professor of moral philosophy. His first book, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), established him as a major figure. As a tutor he traveled in France and Switzerland, and on his return he was elected to the ROYAL SOCIETY (1767). The work that gave him a lasting reputation was An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

(1776). This analysis of economic relationships discredited mercantile regulation and advocated FREE TRADE, within certain limits, in order to maximize economic potential. His work has been seen as the basic text for modern economics. He became a government adviser and commissioner of customs, and in 1787 he was chosen rector of Glasgow University.

Smith, Frederick Edwin, earl of

Birkenhead See BIRKENHEAD, FREDERICK EDWIN SMITH, FIRST EARL OF.

Smith, Reverend Sydney (1771–1845) essayist, clergyman

Educated at Winchester and OXFORD UNIVERSITY, Smith took holy orders in 1794. While serving as a tutor, he traveled to EDINBURGH, where he joined Francis Jeffrey and Henry BROUGHAM in founding the Edinburgh Review. He wrote extensively for that journal over the next three decades while also holding a variety of church places, eventually becoming a canon of ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL. Smith was a brilliant wit and a progressive thinker. His Letters of Peter Plymley (1807) argued for religious liberty, attacking the oppo-