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COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND regime. Having

been royal chaplain and dean of ST. PAUL’S CATHE- DRAL, he was made archbishop in 1678. He officiated at the coronation of JAMES VII AND II, but he declined to sit on the court of HIGH COMMISSION. He later led the SEVEN BISHOPS in opposing the

reading of the king’s DECLARATION OF INDULGENCE

in 1688. They were committed to the TOWER OF LONDON but acquitted by a LONDON jury. After the GLORIOUS REVOLUTION, Sancroft refused to take an oath of allegiance to WILLIAM III, thus becoming

a NONJUROR.

See also SEVEN BISHOPS’ CASE.

Sandhurst

The original Royal Military Academy was established at Woolwich in 1741 by GEORGE II, the last British sovereign to serve in battle. In 1799 a Royal Military College was created on land in Windsor Forest that William PITT sold to the government. Sandhurst was designed as a school for junior officers of infantry and cavalry, a need keenly felt in the ARMY during the NAPOLEONIC WARS. The college was merged with the academy at Woolwich in 1946.

Sandwich, John Montagu, fourth earl of (1718–1792)

politician

Sandwich served as first lord of the ADMIRALTY several times, including the period of the American Revolution. He is thought to be the inventor of the sandwich—in one version as a means of sustenance while spending long hours at the gaming table; in the more flattering version, as a form of nourishment during less exciting hours of work at his office.

Savery, Thomas (1650–1715) inventor

Born in a mining area of Devon, Savery served as a military engineeer and developed the first STEAM ENGINE, a vacuum pump for removing water from coal mines (1698). This design was the basis for

Thomas NEWCOMEN’s improved design, and under the terms of the original patent they formed a partnership and began to produce the new engines.

Savoy Conference

In an attempt to resolve differences between

ANGLICANs and PRESBYTERIANs after the RESTORA-

TION, a meeting was called in April 1661 at the Savoy Hospital in LONDON. The 12 delegates from each side could not agree on a revised prayer book, and the conference broke up in July. The aftermath saw the return of BISHOPs to the HOUSE OF LORDS, the resignation or removal of a thousand Presbyterian ministers, and the adoption of

the CLARENDON CODE.

Scapa Flow

A large natural harbor in the ORKNEY islands, Scapa Flow was used as a royal NAVY base in both world wars. In 1918 the German high seas fleet was interned there at the end of the war. In June 1919, after the Treaty of VERSAILLES was signed, all 74 ships were scuttled by their crews rather than be turned over to British control.

Scone

The site of the palace and the abbey in which the “stone of destiny,” or stone of Scone, was kept. Tradition has it that Scottish kings, from Kenneth MacAlpin in A.D. 850, sat on this stone when they were crowned. The stone was seized by Edward I in 1296 while he was asserting English authority over the Scots. Placed in WESTMINSTER ABBEY, it was put under the coronation chair used by English sovereigns. As a protest by Scottish nationalists, the stone was stolen in 1950, but it was recovered and replaced. In 1996 the stone was returned to SCOTLAND and put on display in

EDINBURGH Castle.

Scotland

The names “Scotia” and “scot” were originally used by Romans to describe IRELAND and its

inhabitants. Migrations and missions from Ireland brought growing numbers of “scots” into the north of BRITAIN from the sixth century. There they cohabited with the Picts in the North, Britons in the Southwest, and incoming Angles in the Southeast. The kingdom formed by Kenneth MacAlpin in the ninth century took the name of the prevailing immigrant people. This kingdom was able to consolidate its rule over the eastern part of modern Scotland, thanks in part to the concurrent invasions of Danes. Those migrations took over much of the island hinterland in Shetland, ORKNEY, and the Hebrides. Royal consolidation continued, somewhat in parallel with the English to the south. But in 1066 the Normans did not take power in Scotland. The kingdom of the Scots maintained a separate existence, sharing culture, institutions, and a turbulent frontier with ENGLAND. When the Scottish line of succession failed in 1290, the English king Edward I tried to control and incorporate the northern kingdom. This was foiled in the Wars of Independence (1308–28), as the Scots resumed their own royal line with Robert the Bruce. Yet this realm, with its limited resources and divisions of culture and terrain, was no match for its neighbor. When an English dynasty next tried to control Scotland, HENRY VII arranged a dynastic marriage, that of his daughter Mar-

garet TUDOR to JAMES IV. Then HENRY VIII tried to

bring Scotland under English control but failed, even with armed force. In the end, ELIZABETH I recognized the descendant of her aunt’s marriage as her rightful heir, and JAMES VI of Scotland came to the English throne as James I in 1603. This union was only constitutional, as the later wars of the 17th century made clear. But in 1707 a parliamentary UNION was achieved, and the United Kingdom of GREAT BRITAIN was formed. Scotland has ever since been a part of a larger, English-dominated entity, now the UNITED KING-

DOM of Great Britain and NORTHERN IRELAND.

However, Scottish nationalism, which began its modern career in the 19th century, has led to the formation of a new Scottish PARLIAMENT, giving a limited form of “home rule” for the northern realm at the end of the 20th century.

Scott, Sir Walter (1771–1832) poet, novelist

The son of a writer to the signet (Scottish attorney), Scott was born in EDINBURGH. Trained for the Scottish legal profession, he was an advocate and practiced law throughout his life. His first literary success came with narrative poems (especially Lay of the Last Minstrel, 1805, and

Marmion, 1808). Waverly in 1814 was his first novel, and it was followed by two dozen more over the rest of his life. His authorship was only acknowledged in 1827, when he was entangled in the financial ruin of a publishing house, and he was obliged to settle very large debts. Scott’s literary output went far beyond these works, with many essays, plays, and critical works. His patriotic and romantic subjects made an indelible mark in European literature.

Scottish National Covenant (1638)

When CHARLES I ordered the adoption of a new prayer book in SCOTLAND in 1637, it received a very rude welcome. A service at St. Giles Cathedral in EDINBURGH was the occasion of angry disturbance and hurled prayer cushions. A number of noblemen and clergy drafted a COVENANT in 1638, in the form of a pledge to protect the “true reformed kirk.” This document recited the legal and statutory record of the church at length. It was signed by an estimated 300,000 people and became the manifesto for PRESBYTERIANs for many generations.

Scottish National Party (SNP)

There were varied groups and individuals expressing nationalist sentiment in particularly during the high tide of IRISH HOME RULE in the 19th century. Yet none of these created a durable political grouping. The first two small parties, the National Party of Scotland (1928) and the Scottish Party (1930), merged in 1934 to form the SNP. Its first electoral victory came in 1945, and the next in 1967. By 1974 there were 11 MPs, as the Westminster government attempted to arrange a form of DEVOLU-

TION. In a referendum on a Scottish Assembly in 1979, the measure was defeated, and the SNP went into decline. But the government of Margaret THATCHER revived it in 1989. She proposed a POLL TAX as a new method of financing local government. It was set to be levied in Scotland a year before the rest of the UNITED KINGDOM and thus was a natural lightning rod for discontent. Riots and demonstrations brought the end of the tax, but also a revival of the nationalists. When the LABOUR PARTY government of 1997 instituted a Scottish PARLIAMENT, the SNP was split over the probable effect: would it dampen or increase national sentiment and the desire for independence?

Seanad Éireann

The upper house of the legislature (Oireachtas) of the IRISH REPUBLIC was created in 1922 and modified in 1937. This body has the general appearance of an “upper” chamber, but it is indirectly elected and its powers are severely restricted. Under the 1937 constitution it is inferior to the DAIL ÉIRANN, which alone can initiate money bills and can overrule the Seanad on other measures.

secretary of state

The title secretary was applied to minor officials until the 16th century. Thomas CROMWELL, as HENRY VIII’s secretary, combined several older posts into a position of a more modern and consequential nature. The Elizabethan secretaries, William and Robert CECIL, cemented the importance of the office. Under JAMES VI AND I it became the convention to appoint two secretaries. After the RESTORATION, the two divided affairs into northern and southern departments (dealing with Protestant and Catholic countries respectively). In 1782 this was changed to the more rational division between a HOME OFFICE and a FOREIGN OFFICE. In the 19th century additional secretaryships were created for war and colonies, for INDIA, and for SCOTLAND. In the 20th century the number has multiplied to include

industry, EDUCATION, employment, and environment. The secretary of state is a member of the CABINET, the head of a department, and is assisted by a minister of state, one or more parliamentary undersecretaries (political appointees), and a permanent undersecretary (a civil servant).

secret ballot

The BALLOT ACT of 1872 introduced a secret ballot for parliamentary elections, one of the demands in the People’s Charter (see CHARTIST MOVEMENT). The old system had the sheriff call for a voice vote, and if that proved indecisive, he would take a poll: each voter came forward and stated the candidate of his choice. This leant itself to intimidation of tenants, workers, or others dependent on the good will of candidates, patrons, and landlords. Indeed there were many incidents of this type after the election of 1868, prompting some to call for reform. The secret ballot was probably most important in Irish elections, where the pressure put on tenants by landlords could no longer affect the outcome directly.

sedition

The crime of acting, speaking, or publishing with the intent of causing contempt or disaffection toward the institutions of government, or inciting a disturbance of the peace, or promoting hostility between classes of subjects. The sweeping definitions were useful in apprehending suspects whom the authorities considered dangerous, as they embraced anything tending toward, but not amounting to, TREASON. After the 18th century the courts defined sedition more narrowly, and it lost its value as a weapon to silence government critics.

Selborne, Roundell Palmer, earl of

(1812–1895) lord chancellor

After OXFORD UNIVERSITY and Lincoln’s Inn, Selborne entered PARLIAMENT in 1847. Made solici-

tor general in 1861 and attorney general in 1863, he became LORD CHANCELLOR in 1872. Holding the office until 1874 and again from 1880 to 1885, he played a pivotal role in drafting the JUDICATURE ACT of 1873. That act fused LAW and equity and merged the old royal courts

into the HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE.

Selden, John (1584–1654) lawyer, historian

Selden studied at OXFORD UNIVERSITY, and the Inner Temple (see INNS OF COURT), and he was called to the bar in 1612. He was a student with vast interests, from ancient languages to oriental scholarship to antiquities, both British and international. His major works were a History of Tythes (1617), a study of the law of the sea; Mare Clausum (1636); and Fleta (1647), a study of the influence of Roman law in England. He was deeply involved, as a MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT and as a lawyer, in the controversies of the reign of

CHARLES I, including the FORCED LOAN, HABEAS

CORPUS, and the taxing power of PARLIAMENT. He was imprisoned (1629–31), and he supported the parliamentary side in the CIVIL WAR. The Selden Society, established by Frederic MAITLAND for the support of legal history, was named for him.

See also LONG PARLIAMENT; SHORT PARLIAMENT.

select committee

As opposed to standing committees, select committees are groups appointed by the HOUSE OF

LORDS or the HOUSE OF COMMONS to investigate

and report on specific matters. Having no more than 15 members, they take written and oral evidence, report to the house, and when their work is finished, they are terminated.

See also PARLIAMENT.

self-denying ordinance (1645)

The discontent with the performance of the armies of PARLIAMENT led to this measure, which required officers in both houses of PARLIAMENT

to resign their commissions. It was aimed particularly at Robert Devereaux, earl of ESSEX and Edward Montagu, earl of MANCHESTER; and more generally at the aristocracy. Since members of the HOUSE OF COMMONS could resign their seats, they could avoid the impact of the law, but peers were eliminated. This also paved the way for general reorganization in the NEW

MODEL ARMY.

See also ARMY; CIVIL WAR; STANDING ARMY.

Senegal

West African country first explored by the Portuguese in the 15th century and then by the French, who established a trading post in 1659. With a 250-mile coastline on the Atlantic Ocean, the country is bordered by Mauritania (north), French Sudan (east), French Guinea (southeast), and Portuguese Guinea (southwest). In WORLD

Senegal was aligned with the Vichy regime until 1942 and thereafter with the Free French. In 1946 Senegal became part of the French Union, thus giving French citizenship to the inhabitants and granting them representation in the French National Assembly. Senegal received its own assembly in 1952, and it became a republic in 1958. Independence followed in 1960.

Septennial Act (1716)

The life of a PARLIAMENT had been three years since 1694, and the result was constant electioneering and some amount of instability. The JACO- BITE rebellion of 1715 gave an excuse to prolong the life of Parliament, from three to seven years by means of the Septennial Act, which did tend to promote more stability—and less accountability. The seven-year term was reduced to five years by the Parliament Act of 1911.

Session, Court of

The Scottish king’s council heard legal disputes, but a settled court structure only emerged in the

15th century. In 1532 JAMES IV established the College of Justice, a body of 14 lords, half clergy and half laymen, with a lord president. They did most of their judicial work as a single body. The system was reformed in the early 19th century, when the court was divided into smaller units and some old procedures were changed. At the same time the court assumed some other jurisdictions (admiralty, commissary, exchequer), and members sat in courts of special jurisdiction. All the lords of session also sit as judges in the

HIGH COURT OF JUSTICIARY.

Settlement, Act of (1701)

If WILLIAM III and Queen ANNE had no heirs, the exiled Catholic Stuarts (JAMES VII AND II and his son) had the best claim to the throne. This act designated a Protestant line of succession through Elizabeth, the daughter of JAMES VI AND I, who had been queen of Bohemia. Her daughter Sophia, the current electress of HANOVER, was the prospective successor, though in the event Sophia’s son, GEORGE I, was the beneficiary of the act. The measure also provided that PARLIA- MENT had to approve any foreign wars, that only British subjects could hold office, that only parliament could remove judges, and that royal pardons had no power over IMPEACHMENTS. Thus the British prepared themselves to welcome another sovereign from abroad.

See also JACOBITES.

Seven Bishops’ Case (1688)

In 1687 JAMES VII AND II issued a DECLARATION OF

INDULGENCE using a tactic employed several times earlier—namely to promote religious freedom for Catholics by tying their liberties to those of Protestant DISSENTERS. Prompting the Seven Bishops’ Case were the most sweeping changes yet tried, waiving acts of UNIFORMITY under the king’s assumed SUSPENDING POWER. The declaration was to be read from all pulpits. Archbishop William SANCROFT and six of his colleagues sent a petition requesting that they be excused from

this command, and for their impertinence they were charged with seditious libel. They were acquitted, but the king had managed to galvanize his opponents.

Seven Years’ War (1756–1763)

Often called the first “world” war, this conflict involved the far-flung interests of GREAT BRITAIN and France in North America, the WEST INDIES, INDIA, the Mediterranean, and Europe. In America, the fighting began two years earlier, in 1754, and was known as the French and Indian War. On the continent, Britain and France switched allies in a “diplomatic revolution,” with Prussia joining Britain and Austria joining France in 1756. The largest battles were in Europe, where Prussia suffered heavy losses at first. The French took the naval base at Minorca in the Mediterranean, and Britain’s fortunes seemed to be slipping. However, by 1759 the tide had turned: preceded by Robert CLIVE’s great victory at Plassey (1757) and the capture of Louisbourg (1758), the British and German forces defeated France at the Battle of Minden, while British arms seized Quebec in CANADA and won decisively in India and the West Indies. By 1760 Britain had gained command of the seas, so that even when France made an alliance with Spain, Britain soon had further victories in the West Indies. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 gave Britain control of Quebec, Florida, islands in the West Indies, Minorca, and parts of India. These victories came at the cost of doubling the national DEBT and intensifying internal political battles.

Seymour, Edward See SOMERSET, EDWARD

SEYMOUR, EARL OF HERTFORD AND DUKE OF.

Seymour, Jane (1509–1537) queen of England, 1536–1537

Jane Seymour had served in the court of CATHER- INE OF ARAGON and Anne BOLEYN. She was courted by HENRY VIII after Anne was arrested, and they