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16th century, and in the early 19th century Egyptian authority was extended into the area, recognized by the Convention of London in 1840. The affairs of EGYPT later came under the control of France and GREAT BRITAIN, while The Sudan was taken over in a holy war by Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi. The attempt by General Charles GORDON to hold KHARTOUM against the Mahdi resulted in his death (1885), which was later avenged by Herbert KITCHENER, who recaptured the city (1898). While British and Egyptian governments tried to control the area, it was beset with revolts in the early 20th century, in one of which the British governor was killed (1924). Further efforts at control were ineffective, and the country gained self-government in 1956. Competing groups kept the country in a state of civil war for most of the rest of the 20th century. The great-grandson of the Mahdi, Sadeq al-Mahdi, was elected president but was overthrown by a military coup in 1991, and The Sudan was plunged into more fighting between the Islamic North and the Christian animist South.

Suez Canal

The great engineering project, led by the French builder Ferdinand de Lessups, was completed in 1869. The 100-mile waterway between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea (and thus the Indian Ocean) shortened the voyage from GREAT BRITAIN to INDIA from three months to three weeks. The Khedive of EGYPT sold 40 percent of the canal company shares to the British government in 1875, as he was nearly bankrupt. Benjamin DISRAELI saw this as an opportunity to ensure Britain’s rights in this vital route. Free navigation was guaranteed by international convention, and British troops provided protection from 1883 until 1956. But a crisis struck when Egyptian nationalists seized the canal. The British and French governments then made a secret agreement with Israel whereby the Israelis would attack Egypt, providing a pretext for the Europeans to intervene. Opposition from the

United States and the United Nations forced an end to the operation and resulted in the resignation of the government of Anthony EDEN.

Suffolk, Charles Brandon, duke of

(1484–1585) royal official

Suffolk was a member of the court of HENRY VIII who, as Viscount Lisle, fought for the king in France in 1513. A year later he was made duke of Suffolk. He married the king’s sister Mary, queen of France (1515), and managed to calm Henry’s anger at this apparent power play. He was given many royal offices, from earl marshal to lord president of the council to lord steward, over the next 30 years. He commanded troops for Henry against the PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE, and he fought in another French campaign in 1544.

Suffolk, duke of See POLE, WILLIAM DE LA,

DUKE OF SUFFOLK.

suffragettes

Those feminists who employed militant tactics in the campaign for votes for women (1903–14). The name was coined to distinguish them from the “suffragists” who had campaigned since the 1860s by constitutional means to attain the same objective. By demonstration, disruption, and damage to property, the Women’s Social and Political Union, under the PANKHURSTs’ leadership, sought to dramatize the cause and speed its resolution. But whether the numerous arrests, imprisonments, hunger strikes, and forced feedings had this effect is impossible to tell. Because they were opposed to organized labor, they failed to elicit support from the bulk of the female population. In any event, there was no progress in PARLIAMENT before 1914, and then the leaders suspended their action and joined recruiting drives instead. The Representation of the People Act of 1918 provided the first breakthrough, giving votes to 8.4 million women over

30 years of age. The suffragettes probably had less influence on this than the thousands of women who had joined the workforce, served as nurses, or otherwise aided in the war effort.

Sullivan, Arthur See GILBERT AND SULLIVAN.

Sunday schools

Schooling was not generally available to children of working parents, and those children were themselves often employed six days of the week. The 17thand early 18th-century CHAR-

ITY SCHOOLS and the schools of the SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE had

reached many of these children. Yet there was still a large portion of children with no educational opportunity. In 1780 a journalist in Gloucester, Robert Raikes, gathered a group of children and taught them on Sunday. The effort included elementary reading and writing as well as religious instruction. As the idea caught on,

DISSENTERS and ANGLICANS worked together at

first, but eventually they set up separate establishments. Some estimates suggest that 250,000 children were being taught by 1795 and almost 6 million in the 1880s. By the 20th century the Sunday schools had been superseded by the state elementary schools.

Sunderland, Charles Spencer, third earl of (1674–1722)

Whig leader

Lord Sunderland entered PARLIAMENT in 1695, married the daughter of the duke of MARLBOR- OUGH, and was high in the councils of the WHIGS.

SECRETARY OF STATE in 1706 (despite QUEEN

ANNE’s dislike of him), he was a leader of the government from 1708 to 1710. Removed from office over the IMPEACHMENT of Dr. Henry SACHEVERELL, he returned under GEORGE I and became first lord of the TREASURY in 1718. Implicated in the SOUTH SEA BUBBLE collapse, he was replaced by Robert WALPOLE.

Sunderland, Robert Spencer, second earl of (1640–1702)

politician

After an early career as an ambassador, Sunderland became SECRETARY OF STATE in 1679, but he was dismissed for supporting EXCLUSION. After reconciliation with CHARLES II, he became the principal minister (1683–88). He supported JAMES VII AND II more fully and for a longer period than any other leading politician. In spite of this, he was called upon by WILLIAM III as a principal adviser, but one who could not be appointed to a major office because of his past. He thus was a “minister behind the curtain,” a role that would become unconstitutional over the next century.

Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of

(1517–1547) soldier, poet

A favored member of the court of HENRY VIII, Surrey fought against the Scots and the French in the 1540s and was governor of Boulogne in 1545. He wrote lyric verse and introduced the sonnet form into ENGLAND from Italy. His arrest and trial on the charge of “treasonable ambition” was apparently because he had the arms of Edward the Confessor quartered on his coat of arms. Presumably this “crime” was reported to the king by the Protestant rivals of this representative of a leading Catholic family. Surrey was executed on Tower Hill in 1547.

suspending power

The use of the royal PREROGATIVE to suspend the operation of a statute. Such a power had a logical basis when PARLIAMENTs met at irregular intervals. But the STUARTs used DECLARATIONS OF INDULGENCE (1672–87) to abort the operation of the religious legislation of their parliaments, thereby raising a more fundamental question about their respective powers. The suspending power was declared illegal in the BILL OF RIGHTS (1689).

Swaziland

A southern African territory once under the control of Transvaal. British administration was installed after the BOER WAR, but no separate government was put in place until the 1950s, when the apartheid regime of SOUTH AFRICA made a new arrangement seem necessary. The tribal king Sobhuza II was granted independence in 1968. The economy had been heavily dependent on South Africa, but iron, coal, and sugar production were developed in order to provide a measure of autonomy.

Swift, Jonathan (1667–1745) clergyman, writer

Born in DUBLIN to English parents, Swift attended school in Kilkenny and then Trinity

College, Dublin. At first a WHIG pamphleteer, his ANGLICAN positions drew him to the TORY Party, and he became a persuasive publicist and satirist in their service. His Conduct of the Allies (1711) was a powerful defense of Tory peace proposals. He was made dean of St. Patrick’s Cathedral in Dublin, and he wrote a number of works that defended Irish causes. His Drapier’s Letters (1724) attacked the plan for an altered Irish coinage; Modest Proposal (1729) scornfully satirized English views of Irish poverty. Swift’s bestknown work was Gulliver’s Travels (1726), which satirized human nature more generally.

Taff Vale Case (1901)

The strike of the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants against the Taff Vale Railway brought an INJUNCTION to stop the action. This was overruled, then appealed to the HOUSE OF LORDS and upheld. The union was subsequently sued for damages and lost, its bill coming to more than £40,000. The exposure of union funds to liability for damages threatened the entire TRADE UNION movement and brought an increase in support for the fledgling LABOUR PARTY. This legal position was reversed by the Trades Disputes Act of 1906.

Talbot, Elizabeth See “BESS OF

HARDWICK.”

Talbot, Richard See TYRCONNEL, RICHARD

TALBOT, EARL OF.

Tamworth Manifesto (1835)

In the aftermath of the REFORM ACT of 1832, Robert PEEL issued an election manifesto in his Parliamentary borough of Tamworth, Staffordshire, which called the act “a final and irrevocable settlement.” In other words, the TORY leader accepted the fundamental change, which had so divided the country, and he set forth a vision of maintaining “established rights” while being ready to correct “real grievances.” This statement has been regarded as the foundation

of the modern CONSERVATIVE PARTY.

Tanganyika

Formerly German East Africa, Tanganyika was taken after WORLD WAR I and made a British mandate in 1920. Its lack of resources meant a fairly quiet development toward independence in 1961. It became a republic in 1962 and joined with ZANZIBAR in 1964 to become TANZANIA.

Tanzania

The union of TANGANYIKA and ZANZIBAR in 1964 created the state of Tanzania. Zanzibar kept a separate assembly, and its political system was controlled by President Julius Nyerere until his retirement in 1985. His successor authorized multiparty politics in 1992. The country relies on exports of coffee, tea, cotton, and diamonds.

Taoiseach

The GAELIC name for the prime minister of the IRISH REPUBLIC. He is appointed by the president but must come from and have the support of the DÁIL ÉIRANN. He advises the president on the selection of ministers and judges, and he decides when to dissolve PARLIAMENT and hold elections.

tariff

Duty imposed on international commerce. Tariffs are used either to raise revenue or to protect domestic producers by excluding or restricting imports. The tariffs of the second category are the particular target of advocates of FREE TRADE. Tariffs have been a source of contention from the revolt of the AMERICAN COLONIES to the agitation

over the CORN LAWS to the battle for IMPERIAL PREFERENCE at the beginning of the 20th century.

In recent times, the EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COM-

MUNITY and the World Trade Organization have preempted individual governments in this area.

Tasmania

At first called Van Dieman’s Land by its Dutch discoverer Abel Tasman, Tasmania was the second area in AUSTRALIA to serve as a penal colony (1804). The treatment of convicts there as well as the extermination of the aboriginal population by 1876 made the colony a byword for cruelty. In 1856 the name was changed, but the economy, based on wood and agricultural products, weakened, and there was population decline due to the discovery of gold in Victoria (1851). Some economic recovery came with mineral discoveries in the later 19th century, but this smallest of Australian states still needs significant financial aid from the government in Melbourne.

taxation

Amounts assessed on persons, property, businesses, and exchanges of goods and services used for funding government operations. Formerly most taxation was incidental, i.e., imposed in order to meet specific needs, such as payment of debts incurred in wars or other crises. Permanent forms of taxation were widely used by the 17th century: indirect taxes on land; direct (excise) taxes on ale, salt, glass; and customs duties on all manner of trade. Further innovation came with taxes on incomes in the 19th century and taxes on sales and then on production (value added tax) in the 20th century.

See also CUSTOMS AND EXCISE; FORCED LOAN;

INCOME TAX.

Tay Bridge

The estuary of the river Tay on the east coast of SCOTLAND was a challenge to engineers. In 1879 a two-mile railway bridge was opened, but parts

of it collapsed in a storm, and 74 train passengers and crewmen died. An improved bridge was built and opened in 1887, and a road bridge was built in 1966.

tea

The beverage brewed from the leaves of a bush found in East Asia (thea sinensis). First imported from China to Europe by the Dutch (1600), tea was in use in GREAT BRITAIN in the later 17th century and reached the AMERICAN COLONIES about the same time. In the 19th century tea cultivation began in INDIA and then in CEYLON (SRI LANKA). By the late 19th century tea had become the British national drink.

Telford, Thomas (1757–1834) engineer

A Scottish stonemason, Telford moved to LON- DON and was employed in a number of building projects. He then became a builder of ROADS, canals, and bridges. In the first quarter of the 19th century he built 1,200 miles of road on the principles of carefully packed foundations. He supervised construction of the Ellesmere Canal (1805), the Caledonian Canal (1823), and the Menai suspension bridge (1825). He also helped to found the Institute of Civil Engineers (1828).

Temple, Henry See PALMERSTON, HENRY

TEMPLE, VISCOUNT.

Temple, Sir William (1628–1699) diplomat, author

Temple negotiated alliances with the Netherlands and Sweden in the 1660s as well as the marriage of Princess Mary (later MARY II) to William of Orange (later WILLIAM III) in 1677. He wrote

Observations upon the Netherlands (1672) and The Advancement of Trade in Ireland (1673) and published several volumes of essays. Jonathan SWIFT was employed as his secretary (1689–94).

Templewood, Samuel John Gurney Hoare, first viscount (1880–1959)

politician

A Conservative MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from

1910 to 1944, Hoare served in many different posts. He is best known for the Hoare-Laval Pact (1935), made when he was foreign secretary. A secret deal was made with his French counterpart to settle the crisis caused by the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. They were meant to be arranging the sanctions to be imposed by the LEAGUE OF NATIONS, but instead they proposed to give Benito Mussolini two-thirds of the country. The outcry caused by this gesture of APPEASE- MENT forced him to resign. He returned to office and held a number of important positions over the next decade.

Tennyson, Alfred Tennyson, first baron (1809–1892)

poet

The son of a clergyman who was disinherited by his father, Lord Tennyson was educated at Trinity College, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. His poems gained an audience slowly; the first volume was not a success (1830), but with succeeding volumes he became highly popular. In 1850 he was made POET LAUREATE, and that same year In Memoriam was published. Much of Tennyson’s work was based on history and tradition: Morte d’Arthur

(1842); The Charge of the Light Brigade (1854); The Idylls of the King (1859); and the dramas Queen Mary (1875), Harold (1876), and Becket (1884).

test act

An act requiring a prospective office holder to pass a religious “test.” One example is the act of 1673, where a holder of an office had to take communion in the ANGLICAN church at least once a year, take the oath of supremacy and allegiance to the Crown, and subscribe to a declaration against transubstantiation. These were the requirements which forced CHARLES II’s brother James (later JAMES VII AND II) to resign as lord high

admiral. This act and later versions (1678 for ENGLAND and 1681 for SCOTLAND) were reversed

by the CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION act in 1829.

Tewkesbury, Battle of (1471)

EDWARD IV had been removed from the throne in 1470 by an alliance led by his former supporter, the earl of WARWICK. Edward killed Warwick at the Battle of BARNET, just as the Lancastrian forces landed in the West. Edward’s army intercepted the invaders, led by Queen MARGARET OF ANJOU and her son Edward, and defeated them at Tewkesbury (1471). This resulted in his restoration to the throne, and it was the most critical battle of the Wars of the ROSES.

Thackeray, William Makepeace

(1811–1863) novelist

Son of a minor EAST INDIA COMPANY official, Thackeray worked as a journalist and was forced to produce in great quantities by serious financial burdens. He was a contributor to Punch and

Fraser’s Magazine, and he wrote the novel Barry Lyndon, serialized in 1840; Book of Snobs (1846); and his major social satire, Vanity Fair (1847). These were followed by Pendennis (1848), Henry Esmond (1852), and The Newcomes (1853–55). He also published lectures on The English Humourists of the Eighteenth Century (1851) and The Four Georges (1855–57).

Thatcher, Margaret (1925– ) prime minister, 1979–1990

The first woman to be PRIME MINISTER, Thatcher led the CONSERVATIVE PARTY to a series of three electoral victories (1979, 1983, and 1987). She was first elected to PARLIAMENT in 1959, having completed a degree at OXFORD UNIVERSITY and qualified as a BARRISTER. By 1975 she had become leader of the opposition in the HOUSE OF COM- MONS, defeating Sir Edward HEATH for the party leadership. Her policies were much more conser-