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of poor relief for working families, linked to the price of bread. The system was widely copied in southern ENGLAND, and it was criticized for having the effect of depressing wages and pauperizing the workers. There is no doubt that it caused rapid increases in poor rates, and in turn the increases brought debates and inquiries, and ultimately a revision of the POOR LAW in 1834.

Spencer, Charles See SUNDERLAND, CHARLES

SPENCER, EARL OF.

Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903) philosopher, sociologist

The son of a nonconformist schoolmaster in Derby, Spencer became a student of society and its relation to government. He worked as a schoolteacher, a railway engineer, and an editor for The Economist. The theme of his work was that the state should have a limited role, that individuals ought to be responsible for decisions, and that their combined efforts would advance society along an evolutionary path. He wrote The Proper Sphere of Government (1842); developed his philosophy in Social Statics (1851); and proceeded to the general systematic works Synthetic Philosophy (14 vols., 1860–96) and Descriptive Sociology (8 vols., 1881). His work ran into a rising tide of collectivist thinking, but the later 20th century saw some revival of interest in his writing.

Spencer, Robert See SUNDERLAND, ROBERT

SPENCER, EARL OF.

Spenser, Edmund (1552–1599) poet

Born in LONDON, Spenser was publishing poems while still at CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, joined the household of the earl of LEICESTER, and met Sir Philip SIDNEY, to whom he dedicated his Shephearde’s Calender (1579). In 1580 he went to IRE- LAND in the household of Lord Grey de Wilton, the lord deputy. While working there he com-

pleted the early volumes of his masterpiece The Fairie Queene (1590–96). During a rebellion in 1598, his castle at Kilcolman was destroyed, and he had to flee to ENGLAND. Regarded as the finest of the Elizabethan poets, his other major works included Epithalamion (1595) and Prothalamion (1596). He also wrote A View of the Present State of Ireland (1597), a plea for strict government of the barbarous Irish.

Spithead Mutiny (1797)

The British fleets, by now the most powerful in the world, subjected their sailors to miserable living conditions, arrears of pay, and grievances about discipline. These exploded in a set of mutinies in 1797, which in some cases raised fears of French revolutionary influence. The channel fleet at Spithead on the south coast of ENGLAND was the first to mutiny, and its grievances were met with concessions and pardons (April). A second outburst at Plymouth (May) resulted in limited violence, but when the North Sea fleet mutinied at the Nore (in the Thames estuary), the government resisted, and the mutineers tried to blockade LONDON. By mid-June, that mutiny was broken, and its leader, Richard Parker, was executed along with 36 others.

squire (esquire)

Originally a young man who attended a KNIGHT, the esquire was later entitled to bear his own coat of arms. By the 16th and 17th centuries, squire had become a term for a landowning gentleman. The 19th century spoke of the squirearchy, meaning the landed GENTRY in general. The title “esquire” also came to be given to

SHERIFFs, JUSTICES OF THE PEACE, and BARRISTERs.

Sri Lanka

The COLONY of CEYLON was granted independence in 1948. After independence, the government stripped Tamil workers, who constituted a large minority of Indian descent, of their civil rights. In the 1950s the Sinhala language was made the

official tongue, touching off widespread civil unrest on the part of the Tamil population. The friction escalated, with a revolt in 1971 that was crushed, leading to a new constitution in 1972 and the proclamation of a republic. In 1977 a presidential system was instituted, based loosely on that of France. The Tamil and Sinhalese conflict continued. During a state of emergency in 1983, Indian troops intervened, but violence continued, and eventually the withdrawal of Indian forces was negotiated in 1990. Serious violence, with a number of assassinations of national leaders, continued into the 1990s.

Stair, James Dalrymple, first viscount (1619–1695)

Scottish jurist

Born in Ayrshire, SCOTLAND, Lord Stair attended grammar school and then Glasgow University (1633–37), where he earned his M.A. He had no formal education in Scots LAW, as none was then available. He became an advocate in 1648, served as a commissioner for administration of justice under the PROTECTORATE of Oliver CROM- WELL, and continued in office after the RESTORA- TION. He became lord president of the Court of SESSION in 1671, but he resigned and went into exile in 1681, refusing to take an oath on the TEST ACT. He returned in 1688 and was reappointed as lord president. In 1681 he published his Institutions of the Law of Scotland, the leading example of the major juristic works which form one pillar of Scots law. Stair’s work derived legal rules from their sources in Roman, canon, and feudal law, and it remains a leading authority in cases where no later rule has been adopted.

Stamp Act (1765)

This act was designed to apply an established method of raising revenue in Britain to the AMERICAN COLONIES. Prime Minister George GRENVILLE needed revenue to provide added military forces for the extended colonial frontiers after 1763. But the colonists reacted violently with public demonstrations, attacks on tax col-

lectors, and a Stamp Act “Congress” to complain about the new internal TAXATION. Meanwhile, British merchants also protested, and the new administration of Lord ROCKINGHAM repealed the tax, but only after PARLIAMENT had passed the

(1766), which affirmed its power to enact such laws.

standing army

A permanent armed force, as opposed to a MILI- TIA. The modern army of GREAT BRITAIN traces its origins to the NEW MODEL ARMY of 1645, part of which was retained under CHARLES II. This force was very small; its purpose was to garrison outposts overseas and, from time to time, to be augmented and used in continental wars. Because of its origins, there was great distrust of a standing army and its possible use to overawe the king’s subjects. Thus the MUTINY ACT was conceived as a way to give PARLIAMENT control over the ARMY. In 18thand 19th-century Britain, this tradition also meant that there would be no large conscript army like those in continental European states. This void was offset by large colonial forces, especially the army of INDIA. Thus the British experience as WORLD WAR I broke out in 1914 was unique, with the country relying on a call for a vast volunteer force—in effect, a national militia. Conscription was not found necessary until 1916. In the 20th century, with its new strategic conditions and the completed transition to democracy, a regular army has become accepted, though the later 20th century saw it revert to a small volunteer force.

Stanhope, James Stanhope, first earl (1673–1721)

soldier, politician

Stanhope fought in the wars against the French under WILLIAM III, commanded forces in Spain, and was taken prisoner. He held various offices from 1702 to 1718; helped to suppress the JACO- BITE rebellion of 1715; and was a leading diplomat, arranging the Triple Alliance of 1717 and the Quadruple Alliance of 1718.

Stanhope, Philip See CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP

STANHOPE, EARL OF.

Stanley, Edward See DERBY, EDWARD

GEORGE STANLEY, EARL OF.

Stanley, Sir Henry Morton (1841–1904) journalist, explorer

Born in WALES, Stanley emigrated to the United States and worked as a writer for the New York Herald, with a specialty in British imperial affairs. He was sent to find David LIVINGSTONE in 1871, and he led further expeditions, especially for King Leopold of Belgium, establishing the bounds of the Congo Free State (1879–84).

staple

A location that was licensed for the controlled trade in wool. Begun in the 14th century, the staple improved the Crown’s ability to tax and regulate this vital trade. At first it was a single town on the continent, subject to change; later a number of home staples were created, and as many as 15 towns were licensed. The port of CALAIS was the revived site of the staple from 1392 until 1558. The system was also applied to other commodities such as leather and tin. By the 17th century the staples were no longer useful to commerce and ceased to be used.

Star Chamber

A meeting of the king’s COUNCIL, sitting as a court of law. The name came from the room in the palace of Westminster (with stars on the ceiling) that was used for its meetings. Created in the late 15th century and used by the TUDORs to deal with problems of public order, the court was not bound by the rules of the COMMON LAW courts. At first popular, as it was able to tame “overmighty subjects,” it was used by the STU- ART kings to enforce their unpopular civil and religious policies. PARLIAMENT abolished the court in 1641.

Stationers Company

A guild of scriveners, bookbinders, and stationers (booksellers), formed in 1403 and granted a charter to control printing in 1557. Any publisher thus had to obtain the Stationers Company’s license before printing. The exclusive right so awarded seems to have been the origin of modern copyright. The Stationers’ Register recorded all works published, while the new charter of 1694 recognized authors’ rights in published books. Those rights were further addressed in legislation in the next century, and gradually the company’s role declined.

statute

A statute, or ACT OF PARLIAMENT, is the highest legal authority in the UNITED KINGDOM. A statute is created by the passage of a bill through both houses of PARLIAMENT and the granting of the royal assent. Due to the increased complexity of government, in 1890 Parliament began to allow ministers to create statutory rules and orders to supplement legislation. This adjunct form of law became known as statutory instruments in 1948. The preparation of statutory instruments is under the supervision of a joint committee of Parliament that examines the texts and calls the attention of Parliament to any apparent defects.

Stead, William Thomas (1849–1912) journalist

Editor of the Pall Mall Gazette (1883–90), Stead collaborated with Josephine BUTLER to expose the problem of child prostitution in The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon (1885). He was a spiritualist and a pacifist, and in his own profession he was regarded as a sponsor of sensationalism before the dawn of the modern British press. He died aboard the Titanic.

steam engine

The first practical steam engine was the atmospheric engine developed by Thomas SAVERY

in 1698; the improvements made by Thomas NEWCOMEN (1712) brought it into wider use in mines. The addition of a condenser and a rotary flywheel by James WATT (1769, 1782) allowed many more applications. At the same time, improved machine making increased the engine’s efficiency, and it was applied to factories and to locomotive devices on land and sea. Continued improvements in the 19th century provided a significant advantage for British manufacturing and transport industries.

Steele, Richard (1672–1729) writer, politician

The son of an Irish attorney, Steele was educated at Charterhouse School and Merton College, OXFORD UNIVERSITY. He served in the Life Guards and later became a playwright. In 1709 he began the Tatler with Joseph ADDISON, and they published the Spectator in 1711–12. Steele was elected to PARLIAMENT in 1713 and became propaganda writer for the WHIGS.

Stephenson, George (1781–1848) engineer

Stephenson was born in Northumberland, where his father was an engineer who worked with colliery engines. He developed a locomotive design which, when wooden rails were replaced with iron, could reach unprecedented speeds. He was the engineer for the Stockton to Darlington Mineral Railway (1825). In 1829 he built the Rocket, which was clocked at the amazing rate of 27 mph. Stephenson’s engine was adopted for the Liverpool to Manchester Railway in 1830, the first passenger line in ENGLAND.

Stewart, Henry See DARNLEY, HENRY

STEWART, LORD.

Stewart, Robert See CASTLEREAGH, ROBERT

STEWART, VISCOUNT.

Stormont

A castle outside BELFAST, the site of the PARLIA-

MENT of NORTHERN IRELAND (1932–72). The name

was used as a synonym for ULSTER unionist government. It was chosen as the site of meetings for the reconstituted government in 1999.

Stow, John (1525–1605) antiquary

Stow worked as a tailor, but he was an avid collector of manuscripts and chronicles. He produced Chronicles of England (1580), a revised edition of the medieval historian Holinshed’s

Chronicles (1585–87), and his own Survey of London (1598).

Strachey, (Giles) Lytton (1880–1932) biographer, critic

Educated at Liverpool and then Trinity College, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, Strachey was the son of a longtime soldier and administrator in INDIA. Indeed, he was named after a VICEROY, but his career moved in a decidedly different direction. A conscientious objector during WORLD WAR I, he turned to writing as a career. His Eminent Victorians (1918) contained witty essays on Cardinal MANNING, Florence NIGHTINGALE, Thomas ARNOLD, and General Charles GORDON. He wrote an unflattering but sympathetic life of Queen Victoria (1921). His last major work was Elizabeth and Essex: A Tragic History (1928) for which he used some Freudian analysis and earned some negative criticism.

Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, first earl of (1593–1641)

politician

At first an opponent of royal policies, Strafford became head of the king’s COUNCIL in the north, then his deputy in IRELAND (1633), where he carried out a ruthless policy of exploiting Crown resources and manipulating Irish factions, arousing the general enmity of all. Recalled by

CHARLES I in 1639 to be the chief adviser, he became a target for revenge by PARLIAMENT. He was impeached but defended himself ably, and Parliament resorted to an act of ATTAINDER which declared his guilt and ordered his execution. The king made the tactical error of allowing the execution to proceed. The King’s decision did not satisfy the radicals, rather, it added fuel to their complaints.

Stuart, Charles Edward (1720–1788)

Stuart pretender

The “Young Pretender,” also known as “Bonnie Prince Charlie,” Stuart was the grandson of JAMES VII AND II. He was born and raised in Italy. He was summoned to lead a French expedition to GREAT BRITAIN in 1744, but that venture was canceled. The prince led a small group to SCOT- LAND in 1745, hoping to raise a rebellion and induce the French to support it. He landed in the Hebrides in July, and he was in EDINBURGH by September. His small army marched into ENGLAND, getting as far as Derby by December. The French aid did not come, and in fear of being cut off, the JACOBITES’ force retreated into Scotland and was defeated at the Battle of CUL- LODEN in April 1746. The prince retreated and spent months hiding in the HIGHLANDS, escaping to France with the help of Flora MACDONALD. He was now an embarrassment to the French, who were trying to negotiate a peace, so he was expelled and sent to the papal state of Avignon. When his father died in 1766, no European court recognized his title, and he died without heirs, leaving a brother, Henry, who declined to claim the throne. The Stuart line was said to have expired, but a recent claimant has argued that it did not (see Prince Michael, The Forgotten Monarchy of Scotland, 1998).

Stuart, house of

SCOTLAND. Their granddaughter was MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS, and Queen ELIZABETH I recognized JAMES VI, Mary’s son, as her rightful successor. James and his son CHARLES I ruled ENGLAND, WALES, Scotland, and IRELAND until 1649. After Charles’s execution in 1649, an INTERREGNUM lasted until 1660. The two sons of the late king,

CHARLES II and JAMES VII AND II then ruled until

1688. The GLORIOUS REVOLUTION brought the rule of WILLIAM III, nephew and son-in-law of James II, and his wife MARY II. William was followed by his sister-in-law Queen ANNE, James’s second daughter and the last of the Stuart rulers.

Submission of the Clergy (1532)

In 1532 the powers of the clergy to hold courts, make canons, and enjoy certain immunities from secular power were surrendered at the command of HENRY VIII. This came on the heels of statutes critical of clerical misconduct, and it preceded the king’s declaration of his ROYAL

SUPREMACY (1534).

Succession, Acts of

HENRY VIII had to alter the line of royal succession in view of his series of marriages and the resulting heirs of those unions. When he divorced

CATHERINE OF ARAGON, he used an ACT OF PARLIA-

MENT to declare his daughter Mary illegitimate (1534). After the execution of Anne BOLEYN, an act was used to declare Princess Elizabeth illegitimate (1536). Finally, in an act of 1543 Henry recognized Prince Edward as his successor, providing that if he died without heirs, Mary and Elizabeth would succeed him, in that order. This frequent tinkering with the succession not only revealed Henry’s obsession, it also contributed to an increasing sense of statutory authority.

Sudan, The

The Stuart monarchy was created by the failure of the direct TUDOR line. In 1503 HENRY VII’s daughter Margaret TUDOR married JAMES IV of

The largest country in AFRICA, The Sudan stood at the junction of black African and Muslim cultures. Islamic rule had been enforced since the