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It was also the everyday language of many nobles, of the higher clergy and of many towns’ people in the South. The intellectual life, literature and education were in the hands of French speaking people, French, alongside Latin, was French and boys at school were taught to translate their Latin into French instead of English.

For all that, England never stopped being an English – Speaking country. The bulk of the population held fast to their own (language) tongue: the lower classes in towns, and especially in the country-side, those who lived in the Midlands and up the north, continued to speak English and looked upon French as foreign and hostile. Since most of the people were illiterate, the English language was almost exclusively used for spoken communication.

At first the two languages existed side by without mingling. Then, slowly and quietly, they began to permeate each other. The Norman barons and the French town-dwellers had to pick up English words to make them understood, while the English began to use French words in current speech. A good knowledge of French would mark a person of higher standing giving him a certain social prestige. Probably many people became bilingual and had a fair command of both languages.

These peculiar linguistic conditions could not remain static. The struggle between French and English was bound to end in the complete victory of English, for English was the living language of the entire people, while French was restricted to certain social spheres and writing. Yet the final victory was still a long way off.

5. Formation of the National language

There were several causes contributing to the use of the dialect of East Midland and particularly the dialect of London as Standard English. In the first place, as а Midland dialect the English of this region occupied в middle position between the extreme divergences of the north and south. In sounds and inflections it represents а kind of compromise, sharing some of the characteristics of both its neighbors. In the second р1асе, the East Midland district was the largest and most populous of the major dialect districts. А third factor was the presence of the universities, Oxford and Cambridge, in this region. These two universities had developed into important intellectual cent- res. By far the most influential factor in the rise of Standard English was the importance of London as the capital of England. It was the seat of the court, the center of social and cultural activities of the country. We should say that the history of Standard English is almost a history of London English.

In the latter part of the 15th с. the London standard had been accepted, at least in writing, in most parts of the country. Caxton, the first English printer, in his numerous translations used the current speech of London, and the books gave а currency to London English that assured its rapid adoption as well. In confirming the establishment of London English as а specific literary standard for the rest of the country, Chaucer’s writings exercised а certain influence.

In the Modern English period, the beginning of which is usually placed at 1500, some new conditions came into р1ау. The new factors were the printing press, the rapid spread of popular education, the increased communication and means of communication, and the growth of what may be called social consciousness.

The printing press was а powerful force for promoting а standard form of language and spreading that language throughout the country. The education was making rapid progress among the people and literacy was becoming much more common. Literacy meant contact with written texts in English (the standard, speech of London). In other words, as а result of popular education the printing press was able to exert its influence upon the establishment of the standard national form of English.

The changes in the class structure of England affected the 1inguistic situation precisely at the time when the standard form of the national language was being definitely established.

The beginnings of the modern period saw the growth of social consciousness. It is every one’s natural tendency to identify himself with а certain social group with the efforts to adopt the standards of grammar and pronunciation peculiar to this group.

In the Middle Ages the development of English took place under conditions which, because of the Norman Conquest, were largely peculiar to England. But by the close of the Middle English period the language faced three great problems like the other important European languages: (1) recognition in the fields where Latin had for centuries been supreme, (2) the establishment of а more uniform orthography, and (3) the enrichment of the vocabulary.

Although Latin had the advantage of universal currency, so that the educated all over Europe could freely communicate with each other, both in speech and writing, the recognition of English in this field was assured as the real force, behind the use of English was а popular demand of all sorts of men in practical life to use the national language in all social and cultural spheres.

The spelling of the modern languages in the Middle Ages had attempted with fair success to represent the pronunciation of words, and this is true of English in spite of the fact that Norman scribes introduced considerable confusion when they tried to write a language which they imperfectly knew. The confusion was increased when certain spellings became conventional while the pronunciation slowly changed. To many people it seemed that English spelling was chaotic. For instance, in one of Greene's Coney catching pamphlets (1591), we find 'соnеу' spelled 'cony', 'connу', 'соnуе', 'соniе' 'соnniе', 'соni', 'cuny' 'conny,' 'cunnie'. But in spite of all variety of spelling, by 1550 many of the features of English spelling were clearly becoming established.

In order to appreciate the importance of the Renaissance in enriching the English vocabulary it is worth while to count new words added at this time. А calculation based, upon the data available in the Oxford Dictionary gives а figure somewhat above 12,000. About half of the total number has become а permanent part of the language. Most of the new words entered English by way of the written language they are а striking evidence of the new force exerted by the printing press and the rapid spread of popular education. The mobility of English workers in the 16^th с. was the chief social factor, besides the expansion of education, which affected the language. We know that the enclosure of farm lands, the depopulation of villages, the closing down of monasteries and the dissolution of feudal households cast adrift а large number of people who were not only made homeless and workless; they were also subject to severe punishment by the state for being so. Some of them, those who became citizens of London under- world - developed а jargon of their own. By the way, the same phenomenon can be observed in the history of all major European languages.

Other social changes had а more limited influence on the language. Thus, the increased trade and cultural exchange with other countries enriched the language with new words and new turns of expression.

In the 17^th and 18^th centuries the rise of experimental science and the rationalist trend in philosophy, both of them of course socially conditioned. contributed a strong additional influence reinforcing the tendency to regularity in language.

One of the achievements of early 17^th -century scholarships was the translation of the Bible into English (1611) by а commission of scholars. The outcome of their labours was not merely а more accurate version but it was also а document of Early Modern English that entered every family in England to be read and listened to every day or so. The intellectual tendencies are seen quite clearly in the 18^th century efforts to standardize, refine, and fix the English language.

Today the linguistic situation in England is such that there is a divergence between the English officially used and taught in the schools, and, the various forms of native speech current among many people. This situation can be observed in the Early Modern English period as well. The regional forms of Middle English include the native Lowland English of Scotland, the Northern dialects, the Southern English dialects and town dialects such as Cockney and Scouse of Liverpool.

The Lowland English of Scotland in its literary form as Literary Scots was used first in the 15^th с. by an important school of writers who carried on Chaucer's literary tradition in the North. Scottish poets of the 15^th and early 16^th c. wrote in two contrasting styles: а fairly simple one and an artificial style decorated with the learned terms of poetic diction. In the second part of the 18^th century Robert Burns wrote in this grammatical form of Middle English and made it extremely popular; Sir Walter Scott used it in dialogue passages in his famous historical novels.

The dialects in the North of England have had no such literary tradition in modern times as that enjoyed by the Scottish. The reasons lie of course in the quite, different social and political conditions. Vanished and forgotten by most were the days of Richard Rolle who in the 14^th с. wrote lyrical prose in the Yorkshire dialect. For Northern English we have а curious body of songs, which have come down to us from the mid-19^th с. а period of bitter proletarian struggles in the mining and textile industries.

А few of the most striking characteristics of Southern Middle English, persisting into the 16^th and 17^th centuries, were used by dramatists of that time to represent а kind of generalized rural speech. Among the modern English writers it was Thomas Hardy who used scraps of local dialect in his stories about the Southwest region he called Wessex (cf. the speech of Tess of the D’Ubervilles).

In the Southeast, the dialect, which has attracted most attention in literary treatments, is the dialect of London speech known as Cockney. Dickens as spoken by the uneducated first recorded Cockney in "Pickwick Раpers"; and G.В. Shaw's play "Pygmalion" clearly portrays the sосiа1 implications"- of the contrast in speech using this kind of Cockney side by side with Standard English. Cockney is an urban dialect; no 1еss а dialect than that of Devon shire or Yorkshire. The same words may be said about Scouse - the dialect of Liverpool speech.

It is to be noted that in the neighboring island of Ireland, the English language has had a special history. When Ireland was reduced to the status of an English colony, to political and economic oppression there was added a harsh discrimination against the native Irish tongue. Ireland is a classical example of a situation in which national oppression was related to linguistic discrimination. The modified form of English spoken in Ireland is termed Anglo-Irish.

Despite the pressure of Standard English regional speech lives on in Dover and Inverness, Newcastle and Bristol. Different types of English are spoken and the form of speech that is often called King's or Queen's English is not always in general use. The broadest forms of regional speech are local dialects. Historically these are developments of the parent tongue and are as 'correct' in their own areas as Standard English. Through the Middle English period (1100-1500) many forms of the language were acceptable. Writers had no standard spelling system to guide them and so tried to spell phonetically, writing their words as they were pronounced locally. In the 16^th century the growing social importance of the court of London increased. The scholarly influence of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and the establishing printing in London exerted a combined pressure towards a standard form of English.

Although the local speech of London and the South-east Midlands became increasingly important throughout the 16^th century. It was still influenced by the speech of nearby areas. Provincial pronunciations were accepted from time to time and resulted in different pronunciations for spellings that had become standard: thus daughter and laughter, which at one time rhymed, now have quite different vowel sounds.

Writers about 1600 began to be very conscious of the variants in the language and to set out arguments for what was 'right' and 'wrong'. Early dictionary makers strengthened the growing belief that one type of English was 'better' than others.

From the time when the language of the South-east Midlands became predominant as the speech of the upper and edl1cated classes, the speech of the ordinary people of the area continued to develop separately as a local dialect. The north and west, which were outside the area of great prestige, had also continued their separate speech development.

The modern local dialects of all these areas and not merely slipshod versions of Standard English, but the products of linguistic history, often more regular in their forms and development than the standard language.

Various factors combine to weaken local speech traditions and. it is increasingly difficult to find in any community lifelong natives who use only local language habits. It is uncertain whether dialects will survive modern pressures towards standardization but for the moment fascinating variants in sounds and words are used by the people of different areas (Cf., for instance, she - -sheer, shur, shoo, shay, oo, her; I am - I bin, I is, I be, I are; children — baims, bairns, weans, children; to brew (tea) - mask, mash, wet, soak, make, draw, dame, scald, steep).

1.6. Roman Church influence on civilization culture and literature

Christian ideology was predominant in feudal Europe, and England was no exception to the rule. The feudal system was interested in strengthening of the Christian religion, a lot of monasteries were opened, and a lot of beautiful churches were built. The majority of the cathedrals and monasteries were built late in the 11^th and in the 12^th centuries by French architects and craftsmen in the so-called Romanesque style. They were very large and solid with a tall central part. The arches were round with lots brickwork decorations, ornament, beak-head edges and chevron design. The building seemed to be weight down to the ground by solidity of its round-arched shape.

The Gothic style in architecture followed the Romanesque one. It was introduced as it had been before, from Romanic countries, first of all from France. It was a style harmoniously blending architecture, sculpture and pictorial art. Gothic architecture was born out of the experiences gained during the final phases of Romanesque architecture. The new architects took over many features of late Romanesque architecture, subjecting them, however, to a new idea of structural lightness, less massive, and demanding more sophisticated forms. Gothic architecture endeavoured to organize the space of the basilica into a unity, in which the significance of the walls minimized, and the building was raised to soaring heights, stressing the vertical principal throughout in the compositional rhythm of all the parts of the structure. The final and predominant aim was the attainment of imaginary space, elevating human’s mind into the supernatural sphere.

The 12^th century marked the beginning of a great movement in religious construction in the form of cathedrals, which proved the greatest design achievement of the age.

Art historians usually distinguish three periods of Gothic architecture in England. An early English cathedral produced an impression of soaring into the air. Salisbury cathedral is usually shown as an example of pure English Gothic.

Later in the 13^th century the so-called Perpendicular Gothic was introduced with a lot of parallel-placed tall perpendicular shapes and lines emphasizing the upward directed movement of the structural rhythm.

The 11^th – 13^th centuries were remarkable for glass-staining. Stained glass with religious themes usually pictures of Saints, etc. was an important element of Gothic church architecture. Pictorial art at that time was often represented by miniature painting and drawing. The 14^th century is considered to be the so-called “Decorated Gothic” where the pure Gothic outlines are marred.

During the reign of the first Norman kings three languages existed side by side within the kingdom: Latin as the language of the clergy and the learned, French as the language of nobility and power and the language of polite intercourse and English as the language of the ordinary people. Latin was the language used in nearly all public documents for it was the language of Western Christendom and as such made many contacts possible.

The English or, rather, the Anglo-Norman literature of the 11^th – 13^th centuries reflected the complex linguistic situation: church literature was Latin; the so-called chivalric poetry was predominantly French while folklore continued to develop in Anglo-Saxon. The language of the common people could not but have words and expressions penetrating from the language of the upper classes, French and Latin.

Thus without losing its native basis, English borrowed a lot of words from those languages, getting a rich sets of synonyms to denote the subtlest shades of meaning or impressions to express the subtlest twist of thought.

The flourishing of feudal culture and the crusades meant contacts with other cultures. English literature could profit by the poetical achievements of other nations.

Church literature was didactic in keeping with the scholastic philosophy of the time it preached asceticism, neglect of earthy existence, preparation for the better world. Didactic poems like “Poema Morale” (ab. 1170, anonymous) or a manual teaching how to avoid sin called “Handlyng Synne” translated from French by Robert Mannyng early in the 14^th century characterized this sort of literature.

Chivalric poetry in French at first and later in English was represented by versified romance. Contrary to the Anglo-Saxon epic, it is not self-sacrifice for the good of the people but defence of individual honour and dignity, individual interest that is in the center of attention. King Arthur, the hero of the Celtic anti-Saxon struggle of the 6^th century transformed into a hero of knightly literature. The poem was at first written in French in 11^th – 13^th centuries then it was translated into English in the 13^th century. Such knightly poems came to present times as “Arthur”, “Arthur and Merlin”, “Lancelot of the Lake”, “Morte d’Arthur” and a few others.

As it concerned to the folklore it was oral and did not all survived.

The 12^th century was the time when the oldest English university was founded in Oxford (1167) to remain the principal center of science and learning. It had a great influence on the development of English culture and science.

In 1209 another university was established in Cambridge. The clerical influence on the universities was very strong. Being founded on the basis of the churches medieval universities became the centers of resistance and struggled for the autonomy. The townsmen and the scholars “the Town and Gown” in the phrase of the time, were two hostile camps, sometimes at war sometimes allies at the time of the Civil war.

All this period the cultural influence of France never ceased. French monks, the religious orders of Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites came in the 13^th century. Among these monks were the first educated people, who lighted the torch of knowledge in the darkness of the medieval scholastic logics. They made theology the center of all their philosophical searching and made the deduction as their main method of investigation. Their idea was that the earthy life is regarded to be the preparation for eternity.

Robert Grosseteste (died in 1253) the Bishop of Lincoln, was one of the Franciscan monks who actively came out in favour of the monarchy restriction. One of his followers was Roger Bacon (ab. 1214-1292), a great English thinker and philosopher with whose name the beginning of natural sciences in England is inseparably connected. He remarked that science at medieval period tended to encyclopedic form. The follower of the scholastic science Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) stated that the most proper method of cognition is scholastic methods of deduction and reference to authorities made the thing dead for the scientists turned away from facts of changing life which doomed science to failure. Albert Magnus one of Roger Bacon’s teachers had seen the deficiencies of that approach and must have imparted the skepticism to Bacon.

2. Inner history

The Middle English period was the time of rapid development of the language. For the first three centuries English was a spoken language, and as such had no norm and could develop without any restrain. All the elements of the language changed fundamentally.

2.1. Phonetics

The stress is dynamic and fixed in the native words. But in the borrowed French words the stress was on the last syllable:

Licour [li′ku:r], nature [na′tu:r], etc.

New consonant sounds developed in native words:

ME [∫] ship [∫t] child [dЗ] bridge

OE scip cild brycз

The resonance of the consonant does not depend so much on the position of the consonant, voiced consonants can appear not only in the intervocalic, but also in initial and other positions.

Vowels in the unstressed position were reduced:

Old English Middle English

a

o e [ә]

e

u

These sounds were in the end of the word, and it neutralized the difference between the suffixes – the main grammar means.

Compare:

Old English Middle English

Genitive Singular fisces fishes

Nominative Plural fiscas fishes

Vowels under stress underwent mainly quantitative changes. In Middle English we observe a rhythmic tendency, the aim of which to obliterate overlong and over short sequences. The tendency is to have in the word one long vowel + one consonant or one short vowel + two consonants.

2.2. Grammar

The grammar system in Middle English gradually but very quickly changed fundamentally: Old English was a synthetic language, Middle English at the end of the period – an analytical language. The principal grammatical means of Old English were preserved, but were no longer principal. At the end of Middle English the analytical means, which began to develop in Middle English, are predominant. They are:

1. Analytical verb-forms (Chaucer: perfect – hath holpen (has helped); passive – engendered is (is born) ;

2. The use of prepositions for grammatical purposes (Chaucer; drought of March);

3. A fixed word-order began to develop.

Some grammatical features viewed diachronically

The changes in English grammar may be described as general reduction of inflections. Thus in early Middle English only two methods of indicating the plural remained fairly distinctive the -s or

-es from the strong declension and the -en (as in ox- en) from the weak. In the adjective the reducing of forms had even greater consequences. Partly as а result of the sound-changes, partly through the extensive working of analogy, except for а few archaic forms, the adjective had become an uninflected word by the close of the Middle English period. The decay of inflections which brought about such а simplication of the noun and the adjective made it necessary to depend less upon formal indications of gender, case, and (in adjectives) number, and to rely more upon word order and the use of prepositions to make clear the relation of words in а sentence. Apart from some leveling of inflections and weakening of endings with the general tendency (for example), the -an of the OЕ infinitive became

-en and later -е: OE drifan - МЕ driven - drive), the principal changes in the verb during the Middle English period were serious losses suffered by the strong conjugation. This conjugation, although including some of the most important verbs in the language, was relatively small as compared with the large and steadily growing body of weak verbs. Today more than half of the OE strong verbs have disappeared completely from the standard language. When we subtract the verbs that have been lost completely and the eighty-one that have become weak, there remain just 68 the OE strong verbs in the language today. To this number may be added 13 verbs, which are conjugated in both ways or have kept one strong form. These figures indicate how extensive has been the loss of strong verbs in the language.

One of the consequences of the decay of inflections was the elimination of grammatical gender. With the disappearance of grammatical gender the idea of sex became the only factor in determining the gender of English nouns.

It should be pointed out that by making English the language mainly of uneducated people the Norman Conquest made it easier for grammatical changes to go forward unchecked. Beyond this it is not to be considered а factor in them, towards the close of the Middle English period the language had undergone much simplification of its inflections, but its grammar was still English.

English grammar in the 16^th and early 17^th centuries is marked more by the surv1val of certain forms and usages that have since disappeared than by any fundamental developments. The great changes that reduced the inflections of Old English to their modern proportions had already taken place. The only inflections in the noun were those marking the plural and the possessive singular. Since the adjective had already lost all its endings, so that it no loner expressed distinctions of gender, number, and case, the chief interest of this part of speech is the modern period is in the forms of the comparative and superlative degrees. In the 16 th century. these were not always precisely those now in use. For instance, а double comparative or superlative is fairly frequent in the work of Shakespeare and his contemporaries: more larger, 'most boldest, or Mark Antony’s. “This was the most unkindest cut of all”. The chief development affecting the adjective in modern times has been the gradual settling down of usage so that monosyllables take -er and -est while most adjectives of two and more syllables take 'more and 'most'. The 16^th сentury. saw the establishment of the personal pronoun in the form which it has had. ever since In attaining the result three changes were involved: the disuse of 'thou, thy, thee'; the substitution of 'уоu' for 'уе' as а nominative case; and the introduction of 'its' as the possessive of 'it'. Another noteworthy development of the pronoun in the 16^th c. is the use of 'who' as а relative.