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B 9
PART B
Texts
American Educational
Philosophies
by Diane Ravitch
SINCE THE MIDDLE 1940S, AMERICAN
schools have been at the center of a tug of
war "between competing educational
philosophies. With striking regularity,
educational policy has swung from
domination by "progressives" to
domination by "traditionalists" in
roughly ten-year periods. . . .
Progressivism in the late 1940s was
called "life adjustment education" by
friend and foe alike. . . . It judged every
subject by its everyday utility,
substituting radio repair for physics,
business English for the classics, and
consumer arithmetic for algebra. Under
the rubric of life adjustment education,
schools were encouraged to merge
traditional subjects like English and
history with health and guidance to
create "common learning" courses, hi
which students could examine their
personal and social problems.
Beginning in 1949, critics complained
that "how-to" courses and socio-personal
adjustment had been substituted for
history, science, mathematics, foreign
languages, and literature. Life
adjustment education was condemned by
some because it was anti-intellectual,
and by others because it aimed to teach
group conformity. . . .
After the Russians orbited Sputnik in
1957, the national press was filled with
indictments of American schools for
ignoring science and mathematics. The
Russian's feat served as evidence for
many of the critic's worst complaints
about the softness of American
education.
During the late 1950s and early 1960s,
educators shifted their focus from
"meeting the needs of the whole child" to
"excellence". Programs were developed to
identify talented youth at an early age
and to speed their way through rigorous
courses in high school and college. . . .
The political climate, typified by the brief
presidency of John P. Kennedy, also
stimulated the popular belief that the
identification of talent and the pursuit of
excellence were appropriate educational
goals. Part of Kennedy's image was the
idea that youth, talent, intelligence, and
education could right society's problems.
The drive for excellence was in high gear
during the early 1960s, and enrollment
in advanced courses and foreign
languages rose steadily, along with
standardized test scores.
The sudden and remarkably quiet
disappearance of the "pursuit of
excellence" in the mid-1960s showed
how dependent it was on the socio-
political climate. A series of cataclysmic
events shook national self-confidence:
violence against blacks and civil rights
workers in the South; Kennedy's
assassination; the rediscovery of
poverty; American involvement in
Vietnam. By 1965, the nation's
competition with the Soviets for world
supremacy had lost its motivating
power. As the Cold War appeared to fade,
students in elite universities — the
194 AMERICA IN CLOSE-UP
1. continued
presumed beneficiaries of the post-
Sputnik years — protested against
technology, against the middle-class
values of their parents, and against the
meritocratic pressures of an'
achievement-oriented society. . . .
Responding to changes in the social and
cultural milieu, educators sought to
adapt the schools to the new conditions
and to placate their numerous critics.
The innovation that had the most
influence in the public schools was the
open education movement.
The open education philosophy
answered perfectly the need for a set of
educational values to fit the
countercultural mood of the late 1960s;
it stimulated participatory democracy; it
justified the equal sharing of power
between the authority figure (the
teacher) and the students; it made a
positive virtue of nonassertive
leadership; and it insisted that children
should study only what they wanted. At
the high-school level, the open
philosophy led to dropping of
requirements, adoption of mini-courses,
schools-without-walls, and alternative
schools.
On paper, open education was ideal. Once
it was put into practice, the problems
appeared. Many schools removed
classroom walls, hired open educators,
sent then? veteran teachers to workshops
to be retrained, and provisioned
classrooms with the obligatory gerbils
and sensory, tactile materials. Despite
their training, some teachers couldn't
handle the open-ended situation;
children wandered about aimlessly, got
into fights, demanded that the teacher
tell them what to do. In some districts,
parents complained bitterly that then
1
children couldn't read, that the
classroom was chaotic, and that there
was no homework. By the mid-1970s, the
open education movement had gone into
decline. . . .
The swing away from open education
was hastened by the public reaction to
the news in 1975 that score on the
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) had
dropped steadily since 1963. Regardless
of explanations blaming such factors as
Vietnam, Watergate, drugs, the effect of
television, and working mothers, a
substantial part of the public believed
that the decline of standards in the
school was primarily responsible for
lower test scores. The College Board's
1977 report on the score drop confirmed
that part of the drop was in fact due to
lowered standards, grade inflation,
absenteeism, and the widespread decline
of critical reading and careful writing.
Ravitch, Diane: assodate professor of History and Education at Teachers College,
Columbia University.
Scholastic Aptitude Test: (SAT), standardized admission test for college.
Watergate: see page 29.
EDUCATION 195
What Makes
Great Schools
Great
A Tough School Pays Off
•
^
H
^
a
M
M
LOS
ANGELES
By 8:01 a.m. at the inner-city campus of Thomas
Jefferson High School, students already have learned the
first lesson about attending classes here: Be on time.
Starting at 7:30, Principal Francis Nakano is standing
by to greet the school's nearly 2,000 predominantly
Hispanic and black students as they arrive. Promptly at
8, Nakano locks the gates to keep out unwanted visitors.
Tardy students are screened by security personnel and
sent to a holding room to wait for one period so that they
won't disrupt classes for others. Students who are late
three times in one month are assigned to 20 minutes of
work cleaning up the campus.
"Now, we have students running to classes," says
Alberta Moss, who heads the tardiness program. From
February, the monthly number of late students dropped
from 1,049 — more than half of the school — to 430 in
May.
Getting students to school on time is only one of the
disciplinary measures adopted by the 46-year-old Nakano
that have changed the fortunes of a troubled campus.
When Nakano, a third-generation Japanese American,
came to Jefferson High two years ago, he found a graf-
fiti-marred campus that openly showed its latest scars:
The blackened hulls of three administrative offices gutted
by fire. Students freely roamed halls that crackled with
an ever present threat of gang violence about to explode.
"Climate for learning." Nakano immediately master-
minded an overhaul of the buildings. "When people feel
safe, you have a climate for learning," he says. The
burned-out area was sealed from view, and a new $85,000
full fire-and-security alarm system was installed.
An aging sprinkler system was repaired, bringing
back green grass and fresh plants to the campus. Students
felt proud of their school again.
There have been no gang fights on campus for 18
months, observes Eric Parker, who becomes student-
body president this fall. Unlike before, he says, "I'm not
afraid any day I go to school. Dr. Nakano is trying to
make school a good place."
With physical changes has* come a renewed attention
to learning. Top scholars are recognized at an annual
academic banquet where they receive Olympic-style
medals for their efforts. Honors programs were started
last year at each of the three grade levels in English.
Still, serious academic problems remain. Standardized
test scores remain low, although the percentage of
students scoring in the bottom quarter has steadily
declined.
"Sixty percent of our 10th graders read at fifth-grade
level or below," says Barbara Shealy, head of the English
department. "But we're getting kids who care more
about school and are willing to work."
Principal Nakano has brought order to Jefferson High
School.
196 AMERICA IN CLOSE-UP
2. continued
About 225 sophomores with low scores will enter the
8-month-old School Within a School program this fall.
Participants sign learning contracts in which they accept
responsibility for their own progress in exchange for
special individual instruction.
More parents are coming to once sparsely attended
school meetings, and local business is actively lending its
support. Last spring, Hughes Aircraft Company provided
a "quality circles" training program to help teachers
identify and propose solutions to school problems.
The Knudsen Corporation, a large dairy 3 miles from
campus, provides on-site internships to students and
donates dairy products for school fund-raising events.
One morning when school officials needed paint to cover
graffiti, the dairy delivered it within an hour.
In a school once plagued by fear and hopelessness,
teachers, students and the community again believe that
anything is possible.
Going First Class
^ H H M H ^ H H
GLENVIEW, III.
Glenbrook South High School is a microcosm of the
successful suburban Chicago community that surrounds
it.
According to 1980 Census Bureau figures, Glenview,
with a population of about 31,000, boasted the ninth-
highest median income of all cities in the country. Large
corporations based here, such as Zenith and publisher
Scott Foresman, further boost the local tax base. As a
result, per pupil spending at Glenbrook South is nearly
$6,000 — about twice the state and national average. " I f
there's a lesson to be learned here," says Harry Gottlieb,
Innovations at Glenbrook South make classes stimulating.
a 1983 graduate now attending Brown University, "it's
that putting money into education is worthwhile."
The district has spared little expense in making learning
attractive. The sleek two-story structure offers an indoor
swimming pool and a greenhouse for its 2,100 students.
The curriculum guide, which exceeds 100 pages, offers
more than 200 courses, ranging from automotive re-
pair to a special program of advanced study in English,
social studies and foreign languages. A full time student-
activities co-ordinator surveys students annually to
see which extracurricular clubs should be expanded or
dropped.
Ready funding also has enabled the school to be at the
forefront of educational innovations. The first computer
was installed at Glenbrook South in 1968. Today, the
school has a microcomputer lab with 22 computers, a
minicomputer with 24 terminals and one of the few
advanced-placement computer-science courses in the
nation. Students can even use computers to compose
music or simulate scientific experiments.
"There is something here for every student," says
Associate Principal David Smith. " W e put as much
emphasis on the lower-level student as on the gifted
student."
Success-oriented. Like the community in which it is
located, Glenbrook South is geared toward success. More
than 80 percent of last year's graduates went on to two
and four-year colleges. "The kids are achievers because
their parents are all achievers," says senior Stephanie
Cotell. "Everybody is really motivated."
The emphasis on achievement at home and school
presents problems for many students in their first year.
To help young people cope, the school since 1973 has
offered a peer-group counseling program in which upper-
classmen help freshmen deal with personal and academic
adjustments. More than two thirds of the freshmen
participate.
Students also appreciate the individual attention
many teachers give. Says Lisa Kivirist, student-council
president: "A teacher I had for freshman history still
keeps in touch with me and asks how I'm doing. I like
that."
Because of the bounteous working environment and
an attractive top salary of about $42,000 for teachers,
the staff turnover rate is low. But an emphasis on
innovation, with the financial wherewithal to support it,
keeps staff stability from turning stale.
"Things are constantly changing around here," says
English teacher Tom Valentin. "There's always a new
approach, a new program. We're always aiming a little
higher, pushing for improvement."
By LUCIA SOLORZANO with JUANITA R HOGUE, SARAH
PETERSON, DOUGLAS C LYONS and MICHAEL BOSC
U.S. NEWS & W O R L D REPORT, A u g . 27, 1984
honors program: special program for more academically-minded students.
EDUCATION 197
Besides sports there are also several other activities
after school such as band, drama club, theater, chess
club, many other clubs such as German club and
Spanish club and so forth.
What does your schedule look like?
Well, I attend school between 7.30 and 2.20 every
day and m that time period I have six hour-classes
and a thirty-minute break for lunch. And between
each class I've five-minute breaks.
Can you tell me anything about the tests and examin-
ations at your school?
Well, we have many different kinds of tests. Usually
we have essay tests, multiple choice tests. Then there
are other tests such as quizzes and oral examinations
such as book reports and speeches and such.
What about homework?
It's different with every teacher. Some teachers like
to give lots of homework and others don't give that
much. It just depends upon their teaching style.
How do teachers evaluate the performance of
students?
Well, usually a teacher evaluates the performance by
written tests equalling fifty per cent of the grade, oral
tests and quizzes as forty per cent and homework as
ten per cent. And then usually we write a large paper
twice a year called the term paper and that also adds
mto the grade.
Quincy Senior High School, Quincy, Illinois
Quincy, Illinois, is a typical midwestern town of
about 50,000 inhabitants. It is situated 120 miles
north of St. Louis, the nearest big city. Quincy
Senior High with a student population of 1,900 is the
only public senior high school in the town and it ^
:
also draws students from the surrounding region.
A
'
Q: Alan, which high school do you attend?
A:
I attend Quincy Senior High School in Quincy, Illinois. Q:
I've b e e n there for four years, and I'm in the twelfth
grade. A:
0: What are the subjects required in your four years of
high school?
A:
Well, in my four years of high school I have to
complete twenty credits, one in math, three in history, 0:
three in English, three and a half in P.E., a half in A:
health and one year of science. And that adds up to
twelve credits. The other eight were optional and
I could take more of any one subject such as math, Q:
history or I could take other subjects such as psy-
chology or computers, or so on. A:
Q:
And what are your subjects now?
A:
My present subjects now are math, English, German,
computers, business law and one study hour which
normally would be P.E. But I run track after school
and so therefore I take a study hall instead of P.E.
• An American
Senior High School
An American student talks about his high school