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201
the entire Southern Balkans and to take it to the East, to the land of
his grandfather. Thus the Balkan men became the first Europeans to
comprehend the full scope of the true East, and Alexander was the
first man who succeeded in gathering around him both marine and
land forces of the Balkans.
«Owing to Alexander and his Balkan shepherds, Greek drama
reached the luxurious palaces of the rich maharajas, and India along
with the Far East and the newly-founded cities all across the Middle
East became culturally and commercially connected with Europe»
1
With the Hellenes as mediators, cultural patterns of the Middle
East, the cradle of the oldest civilizations, had a strong influence
on the Balkan Peninsula. «It is known that, under the influence of
Phoenicia and Egypt, the oldest civilization not only in the Balkans
but in the whole of Europe was created in the Greek archipelago»
2
.
After Hellenic and Eurasian influences, the Balkans fell under
Roman, mostly continental, European influence that, as Jovan Cvijić
put it, ‘cleansed’ this area from Eurasian traits. However, the arrival
of the Slavs, especially the Bulgarians, as well as the Hungarians,
to the Balkan area will almost completely neutralize this cultural
conversion.
The Middle Ages brought Eurasianism back into focus, only now
in the form of Orthodoxy. The Byzantine Empire became the first
cultural and political unifier of the Balkan peoples. This great heir
of Hellenistic ideas finally laid the foundation for the consequent
Balkan fondness for Orient culture, owing to which a unified Slavic-
Mongolian-Hellenic culture was created in the Balkans at the very
beginning of the Middle Ages, i.e. after the arrival of the Slavs, the
Bulgarians and the Hungarians.
«Entering history, the South Slavs had, taking over religion
from the Byzantines, also accepted education and many elements
of social and state structure; a similar case was with the Romanians.
Byzantine culture was widely spread; it covered the entire peninsula,
going even across the Sava and the Danube. The influence of the
1
Balkan i Balkanci, p. 49
2
Knjiga o Balkanu, pp. 378-379
Lapčević Stevo
Culture of Identity in the Public Policy
202
Геополитика многополярного мира. Доклады и тезисы
West was for some time spread over an even larger area, but it was
later reduced mostly to the narrow Adriatic coastal area, crushing
against the high bulwarks of the Dinaric Alps and only partially
intruding deeper into the peninsula mainland by the river valleys of
the tributaries of the Adriatic sea»
1
Apart from Constantinople, Balkan politics and culture were
developed in Salonika, which was a real meeting point of Eurasian
Byzantine and Slavic culture, a town in which the brothers Cyril
and Methodius, the creators of Slavic literacy, were born. While
Salonika connected the Slavs with Constantinople, Constantinople
was the connection of the Balkans with Anatolia, and over it with
Northern Africa and Asia.
The strongest Byzantinization of the Slavs in the Balkans
happened, above all, among the Bulgarians, who were the first to
abandon their old social and religious system. After the Bulgarians,
Byzantine culture was accepted and developed by the Serbs, and
only then the Romanians, among whom this culture was mixed with
Hungarian cultural influence.
The penetration of the Ottoman Turks into Europe over the
Balkans enabled, it seems paradoxically, a shift of the old Byzantine
Orthodox Eurasian influence from the east of the peninsula to the
west and north, where it was driven like a peg into Central European
cultural background over the Sava and the Danube and into the
Western, Venetian background over Dalmatia, where it was held by
a natural border — the Adriatic Sea.
The influence of the Turkish Eastern cultural patterns became
stronger with further Ottoman advances, especially due to the fact
that for a considerable number of centuries the Islamic influence
geographically followed the spread of Byzantine culture. Turkish
cultural influence directly affected a change in the social life of the
Balkan nations. Owing to the Turks, these nations broke loose from
the rigid class, almost cast-like social structure. Turkey enabled
noblemen and soldiers and peasants alike to, in accordance with their
1
Knjiga o Balkanu, p. 390
203
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Culture of Identity in the Public Policy
abilities, climb in the hierarchy, which will also become the need of
the Balkan states created after the nineteenth-century revolutions.
Apart from these three influences, doubtless the strongest, that
unified the Balkans culturally but unfortunately not (geo)politically,
the influences of Western and Central Europe are noticeable in the
Balkans from the Middle Ages to the present day.
«The influence of the Western culture is also noticeable.
Reaching the Adriatic coast by the transversal roads that led through
the mountains, it left the strongest traces of its influence in the
Adriatic area. Due to the centuries-long influence of the Romans,
Balkan population was Romanized to a great degree. One part of
the Balkan population was completely Romanized, the other part
was Slavenized, while only the smallest part was preserved to the
present day. Therefore, the Western culture also caused certain ethnic
changes in the Balkans. Today this influence is in the strongest way
exerted through the church»
1
The increase of the influence of the Western European culture is
strongly connected with the later East-West Schism, after which the
western parts of the Balkans and a part of the Adriatic coast came
under the influence of Rome.
When we talk about the influence of the Central European culture,
we should stress that it is the youngest, that it is colonial in character,
and that it comes over the Sava and the Danube. It was transplanted
into the Balkans by Austria-Hungary and its influence is the weakest
today since, owing to the Hungarians forsaking their own Asian
identity, it almost completely withdrew facing the Western, Austrian,
i.e. German cultural advances. Here as well religion played the most
important role in the process of assimilation.
Consequences
Unfortunately, the nations of the Balkans never managed to
connect into a single geo(political) block. They did not succeed in
making a customs union, let alone a stable political alliance. Such
1
Knjiga o Balkanu, p. 380
204
state of affairs was onone hand caused by the interests of the great
powers and on the other hand by the tendency of the Balkan states
to, in accordance with the Western national romanticism, prove and
defend their cultural and political supremacy over their neighbours in
this small peninsula.
After all, although close, some nations in the Balkans had
developed within different cultural and political frameworks, and it
seems that this fact permanently disabled any attempts at unifying the
Balkans as a whole. In that respect, many nations in the Balkans have
been lost for it for a very long time. Saying that, we have in mind
principally those nations that run away from the Balkans, that despise
it, that are ashamed of their Eurasian cultural heritage. Clearly, the
Croats are such a nation most of all, since they have tried throughout
the course of their history to prove their being an integral part of
the Western Europe, both in (geo)political and cultural respect.
To the Croats, the Balkans is something humiliating, «Turkish»,
«Byzantine», a geographical and political term that, according to
Mladen Švarc, leader of the «New Croatian Rightists», reminds them
of communism and Yugoslavia from which the Croats «took only
harrowing experience».
Along with the Croats, Islamic Balkan nations belong to this group
as well. Unlike the Croats, these nations know that they cannot count
on Central or Western Europe, that for them the Balkans (for now) is
the greatest achievement. They are not ashamed of their Balkan name,
yet they do not think of the Balkans as their ultimate goal. To them,
basically, the Balkans was just a transition that gained on importance
only when this transit to Europe’s inland became endangered.
The reasons for such (geo)political viewpoint are, above all,
ethnic and linguistic in nature, at least when we talk about the Roman
Catholics and Muslims of Slavic origin. Namely, the greatest part
of the modern Croats and Bosnian Muslims ethnically belongs
to Serbian national core, from which they were separated owing
to a variety of factors at a specific point in time. They still speak
the Serbian language, and many of them keep the memory of their
Orthodox ancestors.
Геополитика многополярного мира. Доклады и тезисы
205
By converting to Roman Catholicism, one part of the Serbian
people detached itself from the Eurasian Orthodox idea. Merging
into the Western cultural background that imposed the name of the
Croats on them, those Serbs finally forsook their Orthodox Eurasian
heritage. To them, the Balkans became just a «shameful name».
On the other hand, the Muslims of Slavic origin (composed
mainly of Serbs that converted to Islam), who inhabit mostly parts
of Bosnia and Herzegovina, took a different course, as we have
already mentioned, sharing the fate of the Turkish Empire. Namely,
after Turkish retreat from the major part of the Balkans, owing
to their sense of defeat, these Slavs felt endangered. On the other
hand, logically, they could not convert back to Orthodoxy, which
resulted in a rather rigid attitude of the Serbs (from whose core they
separated) towards them.
This comes as a confirmation of Jovan Cvijić’s remark that
the Byzantine idea of supremacy of religion over nationality was
and still is the most rooted trait of Byzantine cultural and political
inheritance. In the Byzantine Empire this cultural and political
trait enabled the empire to prosper, whereas in Balkan politics it
left extremely negative consequences that, as it has been already
mentioned, manifest themselves in the rejection of the members of
the same people belonging to different religions.
However, it should be pointed out here that, apart from paganism,
Orthodox Christianity is an authentic Balkan religion. Islam and
Catholicism are, in essence, religions coming from the outside
which, owing to Arabian or Roman cultural and political activities
became widely present on this area.
While Catholicism spread simultaneously with the political
influence first of Rome, and later of Venice and Hungary, almost
without exceptionkeeping to the Adriatic coast and the banks of the
Sava and the Danube, Islam spread over smaller oases all over the
Balkans, especially in towns.
«No religion in the Balkans was completely compact at the time
of the Turkish rule. They were all scattered and dislocated. Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Albania and Bulgaria, represent real mosaic in
Lapčević Stevo
Culture of Identity in the Public Policy