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All business people face ethical issues daily, and they stem from a variety
of sources. Although some types of issues arise infrequently, others occur
regularly. Let's take a closer look at several ethical issues.
1.
Fairness and Honesty
. Fairness and honesty in business are two
important ethical concerns. Besides obeying all laws and regulations,
business people should refrain from deceiving, misrepresenting, or
intimidating others.
2.
Organizational Relationships
. A business person may be tempted to
place his or her personal welfare above the welfare of the organization.
Relationships with customers and coworkers often create ethical problems
— since confidential information should be secret and all obligations
should be honoured. Unethical behaviour in these areas includes not
meeting one's obligations in a mutual agreement, and pressuring others to
behave unethically.
3.
Conflict of Interest
. Conflict of interest results when a business
person takes advantage of a situation for his or her own personal interest
rather than for the employer's or organization's interest. Such conflict may
occur when payments and gifts make their way into business deals. A wise
rule to remember is that anything given to a person that might unfairly
influence that person's business decision is a bribe, and all bribes are
unethical.
4.
Communications
. Business communications, especially advertising,
can present ethical questions. False and misleading advertising is illegal
and unethical, and it can infuriate customers. Sponsors of advertisements
aimed at children must be especially careful to avoid misleading messages.
Advertisers of health-related products must also take precautions against
deception.
Levels of Management
Each organization can be represented as a three-story structure or a
pyramid. Each story corresponds to one of the three general levels of
management: top managers, middle managers, and first-line managers. At
the basic level of this pyramid there are operating employees.
TOP MANAGEMENT
MIDDLE MANAGEMENT
FIRST-LINE MANAGEMENT
OPERATING EMPLOYEES
A
top manager
is an upper-level executive who guides and controls the
overall activities of the organization. Top managers constitute a small
group. They are generally responsible for the organization's planning and
developing its mission. They also determine the firm's strategy and its
major policies. It takes years of hard work as well as talent and good luck,
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to reach the ranks of top managers. They are
president, vice president, chief
executive officer,
and
member of the Board.
A middle manager
is a manager who implements the strategy and major
policies handed down from the top level of the organization. Middle
managers develop tactical plans, policies, and standard operating
procedures, and they coordinate and supervise the activities of first-line
managers. Titles at the middle-management level include
division
manager, department head, plant manager,
and
operations manager.
A first-line manager
is a manager who coordinates and supervises the
activities of operating employees. First-line managers spend most of their
time working with employees, answering questions, and solving day-to-day
problems. Most first-line managers are former operating employees who,
owing to their hard work and potential, were promoted into management.
Many of today's middle and top managers began their careers on this first
management level. Common titles for first-line managers include
office
manager, supervisor, foreman and project manager.
Operating employees are not managers. They are qualified and non-
qualified persons working for the organization. For their labour or services
they get salaries or wages. They represent the work force of the
organization.
Areas of Management
An organizational structure can also be divided more or less horizontally
into areas of management. The most common areas are finance, operations,
marketing, human resources, and administration. Depending on its purpose
and mission, an organization may include other areas as well-research and
development, for example, or risk management.
Finance Operations Marketing
Human
resources
Adminis-
tration
Other (for
example,
Research and
Development)
A financial manager
is primarily responsible for the organization's
financial resources. Accounting and investment are specialized areas within
financial management. Because financing affects the operation of the entire
firm, many of the presidents of the largest companies are people who got
their «basic training" as financial managers.
An operations manager
creates and manages the systems that convert
resources into goods and services. Traditionally, operations management is
equated with the production of goods. However, in recent years many of
the techniques and procedures of operations management have been
applied to the production of services and to a variety of nonbusiness
activities. Like financial management, operations management has
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produced a good percentage of today's company presidents.
A marketing manager
is responsible for the exchange of products
between the organization and its customers or clients. Specific areas within
marketing are marketing research, advertising, promotion, sales, and
distribution.
A human resources manager
is in charge of the organization's human
resources programs. He or she engages in human resources planning,
design systems for hiring, training, and appraising the performance of
employees, and ensures that the organization follows government
regulations concerning employment practices.
An administrative manager
(also called
a general manager)
is not
associated with any specific functional area but provides overall
administrative leadership. A hospital administrator is a good example of an
administrative manager. He or she does not specialize in operations,
finance, marketing, or human resources management but instead
coordinates the activities of specialized managers in all these areas.
Management Skills
Effectiveness of a manager's activity depends on certain important skills.
These skills can be divided into seven different categories: conceptual,
decision making, analytic, administrative, communicational, interpersonal
and technical.
1. A conceptual skill is the ability of a manager to see the "general
picture" of an organization. Managers must understand how their duties
and the duties of other managers fit together to plan their activity in a
proper way and get the required results. This skill is very important for top
managers because it helps them plan "super goals" and develop proper
strategies for the whole organization.
2. A decision making skill is the ability of a manager to choose the
best course of actions of two or more alternatives. A manager must decide
the following:
1) What objectives and goals must be reached?
2) What strategy must be implemented?
3) What resources must be used and how they must be distributed?
4) What kind of control is needed?
In short, managers are responsible for the most important decisions which
are required to carry out any organizational activity.
3. An analytic skill is the ability to determine the most important
problem of many other problems and identify the causes of each problem
before implementing a proper action plan. This ability is especially
important for top managers because they have to solve complex problems.
4. An administrative skill is the ability of a manager to keep to the
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organizational rules specified for the production process, within a limited
budget, and coordinate the flow of information and paper work in his group
and in other groups.
5. A communicational skill is the ability of a manager to share his
ideas and opinions with other people both orally and in writing. This skill
is a decisive factor of a manager's success. Some investigations show that
top managers and middle managers spend approximately 80% (percent) of
their work time in communicating with each other.
Thus a communication skill enables managers to hold meetings, write clear
letters and explanatory notes, make reports, etc.
6. An Interpersonal skill (psychological skill) is the ability to deal
effectively with other people both inside and outside the organization. It is
the ability to understand the needs and motives of other people. This skill is
very important for a good psychological atmosphere for successful activity
in the common work in future. If the interpersonal relations are good, a
manager will be successful in getting a support in the development and
implementation of organizational plans.
7. A technical skill is a specific competence to accomplish a task.
The lower is a manager's level in the organization, the closer is his/her
connection with the production process. Thus first-line managers have the
closest connection with the production process. They need high technical
skills to provide technical guidance for the subordinates. Top managers
don't need these skills as much as first-line managers but the knowledge of
the technical sphere is useful for all the managers.
Main Resources
Managers are concerned with the following main resources:
Material
resources
Human
resources
Financial
resources
Informational
resources
Organizational
goals
Material resources
are physical materials and the equipment used by an
organization to make a product. For example, cars are made on assembly
lines. These assembly lines and the buildings that house them are material
resources.
2. The most important resources of any organization are its
human
resources
— people. Some firms believe that their employees are their
"most important assets”. To keep employees content, a variety of
incentives are used, including higher-than-average pay, flexible working
hours, recreational facilities, lengthy paid vacations, cafeterias offering
inexpensive meals, etc.
3.
Financial resources
are the funds the organization uses to meet its
obligations to various creditors. A grocery store obtains money from
customers and uses a portion of that money to pay the wholesalers from
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which it buys food. A large bank borrows and lends money. A college
obtains money in the form of tuition, income from its endowments, and
federal grants. It uses the money to pay utility bills, insurance premiums,
and professors' salaries. Each of these transactions involves financial
resources.
4. Finally, many organizations increasingly find they cannot ignore
information
. External environment—including the economy, consumer
markets, technology, politics, and cultural forces -are all changing so
rapidly that an organization that does not adapt will probably not survive.
And, to adapt to change, the organization must know what is changing and
how it is changing. Companies are finding it increasingly important to
gather information about their competitors in today's business environment.
It is important to realize that these are only general categories of resources.
Within each category there are hundreds or thousands of more specific
resources, from which management must choose those that can best
accomplish its goals. Managers must coordinate this complex group of
specific resources to produce goods and services.
Financial Careers
Fund-raiser
. There are thousands of different charities these days e.g. “for
children”, “cancer research”, "tires disabled”, “the third world”, “AIDS
research”. They all do important work and they all need to raise funds
(collect money).
That's why they employ fund-raisers. What does the job involve? Well, it's
very varied, but basically fund-raisers organize “special” events like
concerts and fun runs, ask governments for money, try to get support from
local companies and organizations.
Most major charities have fund-raising departments which employ teams of
workers. Some of these people do office work - others organize publicity,
visit companies or arrange special events. Sounds interesting?
Tycoon
. A wealthy and powerful person in business or industry. If you are
the independent, creative type, why not start your own business? Lots of
people do these days. Some aren't successful, of course, but plenty are -
and if you do succeed, the rewards of being your own boss can be
enormous. To become a business tycoon you need to have an original idea;
be practical, reliable and well-organized; understand the business world;
keep control of your finances. After that it's all a question of hard work and
luck, but then that's the key to success in any job.
Financial journalist.
Financial journalists work in three main areas -
newspapers, radio and television. Their job is to understand what's
happening in the financial world and explain it as quickly and accurately as
possible. Economic journalists don't just report today's news, though. They