ВУЗ: Казахская Национальная Академия Искусств им. Т. Жургенова
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History, architecture and negative feedback
By elementary feedback theory, the factor of improvement for all these
quantities is;
Improvement ratio = A."
Equation 2.1
where A is the open-loop gain, and " the attenuation in the feedback
network, i.e. the reciprocal of the closed-loop gain. In most audio
applications the improvement factor can be regarded as simply open-loop
gain divided by closed-loop gain.
In simple circuits you just apply negative feedback and that is the end of the
matter. In a typical power amplifier, which cannot be operated without
NFB, if only because it would be saturated by its own DC offset voltages,
there are several stages which may accumulate phase-shift, and simply
closing the loop usually brings on severe Nyquist oscillation at HF. This is
a serious matter, as it will not only burn out any tweeters that are unlucky
enough to be connected, but can also destroy the output devices by
overheating, as they may be unable to turn off fast enough at ultrasonic
frequencies. (See page 153.)
The standard cure for this instability is compensation. A capacitor is added,
usually in Miller-Integrator format, to roll-off the open-loop gain at 6 dB per
octave, so it reaches unity loop-gain before enough phase-shift can build
up to allow oscillation. This means the NFB factor varies strongly with
frequency, an inconvenient fact that many audio commentators seem to
forget.
It is crucial to remember that a distortion harmonic, subjected to a
frequency-dependent NFB factor as above, will be reduced by the NFB
factor corresponding to its own frequency, not that of its fundamental. If
you have a choice, generate low-order rather than high-order distortion
harmonics, as the NFB deals with them much more effectively.
Negative-feedback can be applied either locally (i.e. to each stage, or each
active device) or globally, in other words right around the whole amplifier.
Global NFB is more efficient at distortion reduction than the same amount
distributed as local NFB, but places much stricter limits on the amount of
phase-shift that may be allowed to accumulate in the forward path.
Above the dominant pole frequency, the VAS acts as a Miller integrator, and
introduces a constant 90-degree phase lag into the forward path. In other
words, the output from the input stage must be in quadrature if the final
amplifier output is to be in phase with the input, which to a close
approximation it is. This raises the question of how the ninety-degree phase
shift is accommodated by the negative-feedback loop; the answer is that
the input and feedback signals applied to the input stage are there
subtracted, and the small difference between two relatively large signals
with a small phase shift between them has a much larger phase shift. This
is the signal that drives the VAS input of the amplifier.
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Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
Solid-state power amplifiers, unlike many valve designs, are almost
invariably designed to work at a fixed closed-loop gain. If the circuit is
compensated by the usual dominant-pole method, the HF open-loop gain
is also fixed, and therefore so is the important negative feedback factor. This
is in contrast to valve amplifiers, where the amount of negative feedback
applied was regarded as a variable, and often user-selectable parameter; it
was presumably accepted that varying the negative feedback factor caused
significant changes in input sensitivity. A further complication was serious
peaking of the closed-loop frequency response at both LF and HF ends of
the spectrum as negative feedback was increased, due to the inevitable
bandwidth limitations in a transformer-coupled forward path. Solid-state
amplifier designers go cold at the thought of the customer tampering with
something as vital as the NFB factor, and such an approach is only
acceptable in cases like valve amplification where global NFB plays a
minor role.
Some common misconceptions about negative feedback
All of the comments quoted below have appeared many times in the hi-fi
literature. All are wrong.
Negative feedback is a bad thing. Some audio commentators hold that,
without qualification, negative feedback is a bad thing. This is of course
completely untrue and based on no objective reality. Negative feedback is
one of the fundamental concepts of electronics, and to avoid its use
altogether is virtually impossible; apart from anything else, a small amount
of local NFB exists in every common-emitter transistor because of the
internal emitter resistance. I detect here distrust of good fortune; the uneasy
feeling that if something apparently works brilliantly then there must be
something wrong with it.
A low negative-feedback factor is desirable. Untrue; global NFB makes
just about everything better, and the sole effect of too much is HF
oscillation, or poor transient behaviour on the brink of instability. These
effects are painfully obvious on testing and not hard to avoid unless there
is something badly wrong with the basic design.
In any case, just what does low mean? One indicator of imperfect
knowledge of negative feedback is that the amount enjoyed by an amplifier
is almost always baldly specified as so many dB on the very few occasions
it is specified at all – despite the fact that most amplifiers have a feedback
factor that varies considerably with frequency. A dB figure quoted alone is
meaningless, as it cannot be assumed that this is the figure at 1 kHz or any
other standard frequency.
My practice is to quote the NFB factor at 20 kHz, as this can normally be
assumed to be above the dominant pole frequency, and so in the region
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History, architecture and negative feedback
where open-loop gain is set by only two or three components. Normally
the open-loop gain is falling at a constant 6 dB/octave at this frequency on
its way down to intersect the unity-loop-gain line and so its magnitude
allows some judgement as to Nyquist stability. Open-loop gain at LF
depends on many more variables such as transistor beta, and consequently
has wide tolerances and is a much less useful quantity to know. This is dealt
with in more detail on page 101.
Negative feedback is a powerful technique, and therefore dangerous when
misused. This bland truism usually implies an audio Rakes’s Progress that
goes something like this: an amplifier has too much distortion, and so the
open-loop gain is increased to augment the NFB factor. This causes HF
instability, which has to be cured by increasing the compensation
capacitance. This is turn reduces the slew-rate capability, and results in a
sluggish, indolent, and generally bad amplifier.
The obvious flaw in this argument is that the amplifier so condemned no
longer has a high NFB factor, because the increased compensation
capacitor has reduced the open-loop gain at HF; therefore feedback itself
can hardly be blamed. The real problem in this situation is probably unduly
low standing current in the input stage; this is the other parameter
determining slew-rate.
NFB may reduce low-order harmonics but increases the energy in the
discordant higher harmonics. A less common but recurring complaint is
that the application of global NFB is a shady business because it transfers
energy from low-order distortion harmonics – considered musically
consonant – to higher-order ones that are anything but. This objection
contains a grain of truth, but appears to be based on a misunderstanding of
one article in an important series by Peter Baxandall
[24]
in which he
showed that if you took an amplifier with only second-harmonic distortion,
and then introduced NFB around it, higher-order harmonics were indeed
generated as the second harmonic was fed back round the loop. For
example, the fundamental and the second-harmonic intermodulate to give
a component at third-harmonic frequency. Likewise, the second and third
intermodulate to give the fifth harmonic. If we accept that high-order
harmonics should be numerically weighted to reflect their greater
unpleasantness, there could conceivably be a rise rather than a fall in the
weighted THD when negative feedback is applied.
All active devices, in Class A or B (including FETs, which are often
erroneously thought to be purely square-law), generate small amounts of
high-order harmonics. Feedback could and would generate these from
nothing, but in practice they are already there.
The vital point is that if enough NFB is applied, all the harmonics can be
reduced to a lower level than without it. The extra harmonics generated,
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Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
effectively by the distortion of a distortion, are at an extremely low level
providing a reasonable NFB factor is used. This is a powerful argument
against low feedback factors like 6 dB, which are most likely to increase the
weighted THD. For a full understanding of this topic, a careful reading of
the Baxandall series is absolutely indispensable.
A low open-loop bandwidth means a sluggish amplifier with a low slew-
rate. Great confusion exists in some quarters between open-loop band-
width and slew-rate. In truth open-loop bandwidth and slew-rate are
nothing to do with each other, and may be altered independently. Open-
loop bandwidth is determined by compensation Cdom, VAS beta, and the
resistance at the VAS collector, while slew-rate is set by the input stage
standing current and Cdom. Cdom affects both, but all the other parameters
are independent. (See Chapter 3 for more details.)
In an amplifier, there is a maximum amount of NFB you can safely apply at
20 kHz; this does not mean that you are restricted to applying the same
amount at 1 kHz, or indeed 10 Hz. The obvious thing to do is to allow the
NFB to continue increasing at 6 dB/octave – or faster if possible – as
frequency falls, so that the amount of NFB applied doubles with each
octave as we move down in frequency, and we derive as much benefit as
we can. This obviously cannot continue indefinitely, for eventually open-
loop gain runs out, being limited by transistor beta and other factors. Hence
the NFB factor levels-out at a relatively low and ill-defined frequency; this
frequency is the open-loop bandwidth, and for an amplifier that can never
be used open-loop, has very little importance.
It is difficult to convince people that this frequency is of no relevance
whatever to the speed of amplifiers, and that it does not affect the slew-rate.
Nonetheless, it is so, and any First-year electronics textbook will confirm
this. High-gain op-amps with sub-1 Hz bandwidths and blindingly fast
slewing are as common as the grass (if somewhat less cheap) and if that
doesn’t demonstrate the point beyond doubt then I really don’t know what
will.
Limited open-loop bandwidth prevents the feedback signal from imme-
diately following the system input, so the utility of this delayed feedback is
limited. No linear circuit can introduce a pure time-delay; the output
must begin to respond at once, even if it takes a long time to complete its
response. In the typical amplifier the dominant-pole capacitor introduces a
90-degree phase shift between input-pair and output at all but the lowest
audio frequencies, but this is not a true time-delay. The phrase delayed
feedback is often used to describe this situation, and it is a wretchedly
inaccurate term; if you really delay the feedback to a power amplifier
(which can only be done by adding a time-constant to the feedback
network rather than the forward path) it will quickly turn into the proverbial
power oscillator as sure as night follows day.
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History, architecture and negative feedback
Amplifier stability and negative feedback
In controlling amplifier distortion, there are two main weapons. The first is
to make the linearity of the circuitry as good as possible before closing the
feedback loop. This is unquestionably important, but it could be argued it
can only be taken so far before the complexity of the various amplifier
stages involved becomes awkward. The second is to apply as much
negative feedback as possible while maintaining amplifier stability. It is
well known that an amplifier with a single time-constant is always stable,
no matter how high the feedback factor. The linearisation of the VAS by
local Miller feedback is a good example. However, more complex circuitry,
such as the generic three-stage power amplifier, has more than one time-
constant, and these extra poles will cause poor transient response or
instability if a high feedback factor is maintained up to the higher
frequencies where they start to take effect. It is therefore clear that if these
higher poles can be eliminated or moved upward in frequency, more
feedback can be applied and distortion will be less for the same stability
margins. Before they can be altered – if indeed this is practical at all – they
must be found and their impact assessed.
The dominant pole frequency of an amplifier is, in principle, easy to
calculate; the mathematics is very simple (see page 62). In practice, two of
the most important factors, the effective beta of the VAS and the VAS
collector impedance, are only known approximately, so the dominant pole
frequency is a rather uncertain thing. Fortunately this parameter in itself has
no effect on amplifier stability. What matters is the amount of feedback at
high frequencies.
Things are different with the higher poles. To begin with, where are they?
They are caused by internal transistor capacitances and so on, so there
is no physical component to show where the roll-off is. It is generally
regarded as fact that the next poles occur in the output stage, which will
use power devices that are slow compared with small-signal transistors.
Taking the Class-B design on page 176, the TO-92 MPSA06 devices have
an Ft of 100 MHz, the MJE340 drivers about 15 MHz (for some reason
this parameter is missing from the data sheet) and the MJ802 output
devices an Ft of 2.0 MHz. Clearly the output stage is the prime suspect.
The next question is at what frequencies these poles exist. There is no
reason to suspect that each transistor can be modelled by one simple
pole.
There is a huge body of knowledge devoted to the art of keeping feedback
loops stable while optimising their accuracy; this is called Control Theory,
and any technical bookshop will yield some intimidatingly fat volumes
called things like ‘Control System Design’. Inside, system stability is tackled
by Laplace-domain analysis, eigenmatrix methods, and joys like the
Lyapunov stability criterion. I think that makes it clear that you need to be
pretty good at mathematics to appreciate this kind of approach.
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