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football (soccer)

A game between opposing players, each attempting to strike a ball by foot into the opponents’ goal; called soccer in the United States. In the early days the game was accompanied by considerable violence, and authorities tried to suppress it. Only in the 19th century were rules evolved which reduced violence on the field and made the game more respectable. The Football Association was formed in the 1860s, and a cup competition was begun in 1872. Originally an amateur sport, with extensive participation by university and club teams, professional teams dominated the game by the 1890s, forcing the organization of a separate amateur level. Several

professional leagues were formed, including a Scottish and an Irish league in 1890. These fostered the tradition of “international” matches among the countries of the British Isles, which date from 1872. Genuine international competition grew in the years after 1918, and the World Cup was begun in 1930. Large crowds attended matches from an early date (111,000 at Crystal Palace in 1901; 126,000 at the new Wembley Stadium in 1923). A number of accidents in the late 20th century caused the loss of lives at football matches. A more intractable problem was the rise of football hooliganism—the riotous behavior of fans, particularly in international competitions. This has drawn the intervention of

PARLIAMENT (Public Order Act, 1986) and threatened exclusion of English teams from European competition.

Forbes, Duncan (1685–1747)

Scottish judge

Studied law at Leiden, was SHERIFF of Midlothian (1709), a MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT (1722), and LORD ADVOCATE (1725). He became lord president of the Court of SESSION in 1737. Forbes was a strong supporter of the House of HANOVER, and he helped to maintain order in several incidents where there was unrest over English measures to raise taxes. He raised an army to fight in 1745 and led his troops to the west to divide the enemy CLANs. He thus was not present at the Battle of CULLODEN, although he later tried to mitigate the brutal treatment of the rebels.

forced loan

The Crown used its influence to extort funds at many points in history. The forced loan was one method, used often by the TUDORs. In the next century, when CHARLES I faced parliamentary opposition, he turned to the landowners and demanded their support. The loan of 1626 was actually an innovation, as it was applied to all taxpayers. Therefore the FIVE KNIGHTS’ CASE was an appropriately innovative response. So too was the condemnation of such loans in the PETI- TION OF RIGHT (1628) and the outlawing of the practice in the BILL OF RIGHTS (1689).

Foreign Office

The government department responsible for relations with other countries, created in 1782. Formerly these affairs were handled by the two secretaries of state, for the Northern and Southern departments. The staff was very small for most of the 19th century. The first typist was hired in 1889, and the first telephone was installed in 1895. The office was one of the last to lose its elitist character, with limited examination for entry

beginning in 1908. In 1968 it was joined to the remnants of the Colonial Office and the Commonwealth Relations Office, and is now known as the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.

See also SECRETARY OF STATE.

Forster, E(dward) M(organ)

(1879–1970) author

A student and later longtime lecturer at CAM- BRIDGE UNIVERSITY, Forster was associated with the BLOOMSBURY GROUP. He wrote novels that gave penetrating analyses of the English, as in his early works: Where Angels Fear to Tread (1905), The Longest Journey (1907), and A Room with a View (1908). His novel Howard’s End

(1910) was a critical view of the social condition of England; his later work, A Passage to India (1924) was aimed at British imperialism. Forster was also a strong voice against censorship, and he was the first president of the National Council for Civil Liberties (1934).

Forster, William E. (1819–1886)

Liberal politician

The son of a QUAKER missionary, Forster entered PARLIAMENT in 1861. He was responsible for the Education Act of 1870, which created the first national system of elementary EDUCATION in EN- GLAND. He also was a key figure in the passage of the BALLOT ACT (1872). He briefly served as chief secretary for IRELAND (1880–82), but resigned over the government’s dealing with Charles PAR- NELL. His replacement was Lord Frederick CAVEN- DISH, who was murdered in Phoenix Park.

Fortescue, Sir John (1394–1476) lawyer

A MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT and later chief justice of KING’S BENCH (1442), Fortescue was attainted when the Yorkists were victorious in 1461. He joined the Lancastrians again in 1471, only to be captured. He agreed to support EDWARD IV, and

he went into exile. In this period he wrote De laudibus legum angliae, in which he praised the limited MONARCHY of ENGLAND (not printed until 1537). He also wrote On the Governance of the Kingdom of England, which was not published until 1714. His strong views on parliamentary authority awaited a larger following in the 17th century and after.

“inner light.” Rejecting all church attendance, he set out to preach his faith, traveling through the British Isles and to the WEST INDIES, America, and the Netherlands. His message attracted many followers, perhaps as many as 40,000 by 1660, who took the name “Friends of Truth” and were also called QUAKERS. They were persecuted, Fox himself being imprisoned eight times.

Fox, Charles James (1749–1806) politician

The son of the politician Henry FOX, Charles Fox attended Eton and Hertford College, OXFORD UNI- VERSITY. Indulged by his father, and with his influence, he entered PARLIAMENT in 1768, though he was underage. A champion of many liberal causes, he was an erratic colleague who had little success in ministerial positions. As a WHIG leader he opposed the policies of Lord NORTH and King

GEORGE III toward the AMERICAN COLONIES.

Briefly in government after the American war, he alienated the king further, and his coalition with his former enemy North was defeated in 1783. The young William PITT was the king’s new choice, and Fox was cast as his adversary. There followed nearly two decades in sometimes lonely opposition, as Pitt proved to be highly popular, especially as the foe of the French Revolution, to which Fox had initially given his support. He was briefly foreign secretary and sought a peace with Napoleon, which was a failure (1806). Fox presented the resolution that brought the end of the British SLAVE TRADE (1807). He was a brilliant orator, but too inclined to improvisation. Despite a high intelligence and an ability to gain a following, he seemed to lack a serious commitment to the business of government. He was buried in

WESTMINSTER ABBEY.

Fox, George (1624–1691) founder of the Quakers

A Leicestershire apprentice shoemaker, Fox experienced a conversion by what he called an

Foxe, John (1516–1587)

Protestant writer

Educated at OXFORD UNIVERSITY and a fellow of Magdalen College, Foxe went into exile under MARY I. While on the continent he compiled his “Book of Martyrs,” published first in Latin (1559) and then in an English edition as Actes and Monuments (1563). Dedicated to Queen ELIZ- ABETH I, the book had vivid, illustrated depictions of the stories of hundreds of Christians, and particularly Protestants, who died for their faith. It was a best-seller and went through four editions in the 16th century.

fox hunting

The sport involves pursuit of a fox by mounted hunters (usually mounted) and a pack of foxhounds. Over the last half of the 20th century, there was growing opposition to the sport, especially from animal-rights activists. The season runs from November to April, and it is estimated that hunting kills some 12,000 foxes annually, whereas 10 times that number are killed by other means. Throughout the 1990s, legislation to ban fox hunting gained support, but it has been pointed out that the 200 or so packs of hounds and their hunters have provided livelihoods for thousands of workers in related trades and communities. These would be put at risk by a ban of the sport.

franchise

This term generally referred to “freedom” in medieval usage. Later it was applied to a specific

legal jurisdiction, and at a still later time it came to mean the privilege of voting or the qualification thereto. The early franchise for parliamentary elections was stipulated in statute and in BOROUGH charters. Under a statute of 1429 the COUNTY freeholders who held property of an annual value of 40 shillings were able to vote. Their equivalent in a borough were regulated by the particular charter of the borough: votes might be given to all freemen, to the payers of local taxes, to owners of specific properties, or to local officials. Only in 1832 was the franchise made uniform, with a £10 property qualification for all boroughs. In 1867 all borough householders were allowed to vote; this was extended to all householders in the counties in 1884. In 1918 males age 21 and older and women over 30 were given the right to vote, and in 1928 all adults 21 and older were enfranchised.

Free Church of Scotland

The body formed at the DISRUPTION of the

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND in 1843. Thomas CHALMERS

was chosen as the moderator, and 470 ministers signed an Act of Separation. They split with the main body of the church over the matter of civil authority exerted over the spiritual, especially in issues of patronage. Because of the division, many new churches and schools had to be built. As the use of patronage declined, a process of reunion began toward the end of the 19th century, culminating in the reunited Church of Scotland in 1929.

freehold

A form of LAND tenure, from the medieval period “free” of feudal obligations, or rather, where those obligations had been converted into money payments. As the payments were fixed, over time they became negligible. In the 17th century, feudal tenures were abolished, making freehold a form of absolute ownership. In 1925 the COPYHOLD tenure was converted into freehold.

free trade

Trade that is free of TARIFFS and regulations. Advocated from the late 18th century by critics of MERCANTILISM, such as Adam SMITH, the doctrine of free trade gained an increasing following in the 19th century after the loss of the AMERICAN COLONIES, the beginning of industrial growth, and the expansion of trade. The battle over the CORN LAWS and their eventual repeal (1846) was followed quickly by the repeal of the NAVIGATION ACTS (1849). GREAT BRITAIN then entered a period of unrestricted trade that lasted until 1932, when a general tariff was imposed. Since WORLD WAR II, Britain has entered a variety of trade agreements aimed at limiting restrictions or creating specific free-trade arrangements.

French, Sir John (1852–1925) field marshal

French served in the expedition to relieve KHAR- TOUM in 1884 and commanded cavalry in the BOER WAR. Made chief of the imperial general staff in 1912, he had to resign because of the

CURRAGH MUTINY (1914). As WORLD WAR I broke

out, he returned in 1914 to serve as comman-

der of the BRITISH EXPEDITIONARY FORCE. Soon he

was faced with the unexpected strategic challenge of trench warfare on the western front. His only tactic was to use increased artillery, and in 1915 he contributed to a panic over the short supply of shells. His several efforts to break through the stalemate were costly battles with poor results. He resigned as commander in chief and was replaced by Douglas HAIG in December 1915, upon which he took command of home

forces. He was later LORD LIEUTENANT of IRELAND

(1918–21).

friendly societies

A form of mutual benefit developed among workers as early as the 17th century. Known as friendly societies, they were recognized by statute in 1793. A small weekly contribution was paid into a common fund, and sickness and

death benefits were paid out. Meetings, rituals, and ceremonies were part of their practice, and they were joined from the 1830s by growing numbers of cooperative societies and affiliated orders (Oddfellows, Ancient Britons, etc.).

Friends of the People

A society of radical WHIGS, mainly aristocrats, organized in 1792. Sympathetic to the French Revolution in its early stages, Friends of the People promoted parliamentary reform in ENGLAND. Leaders such as Lord John RUSSELL, Charles GREY, and Charles James FOX were among their number; the dues were high enough to prevent a surge of members who actually belonged to “the people.” Other groups of radicals distrusted them, and within a few years, with growing danger on the military and political front, the society ceased to meet.

Frobisher, Martin (1539–1594) explorer

Born in Yorkshire, Frobisher was brought up in the household of his maternal grandfather, who sent him on his first voyage to Guinea in 1554. He spent 15 years or so engaged in privateering, but his best-known efforts were his voyages to find a NORTHWEST PASSAGE to Cathay (1576–78). Though failing in the main mission, he discovered Baffin Island, near Labrador. He was viceadmiral in Sir Francis DRAKE’s expedition to the WEST INDIES in 1586, returning to command a squadron in the battle against the Spanish

ARMADA. In 1590 he sailed with the expedition of Sir John HAWKINS, again as vice-admiral.

Frost, John (1784–1877)

Chartist

A tailor and the mayor of Newport, South Wales, Frost represented Newport at the Chartist Convention (1839). After the Chartists’ petition was rejected by PARLIAMENT, and in a climate of labor unrest in his region, he led an uprising in Newport (1839). It was suppressed, and he was sentenced to transportation for life to Van Dieman’s Land (see TASMANIA). He was pardoned and allowed to return to WALES in 1856. In his later years he wrote and lectured on the experiences of convicts and the evils of transportation.

See also CHARTIST MOVEMENT.

Fry, Elizabeth (1780–1845) prison reformer

Born into a family of wealthy QUAKER bankers who held moderate beliefs, Fry was able to study music and dance. She taught in a private school; married Joseph Fry, a strict Quaker; and moved to LONDON. There she was appalled at prison conditions when she visited NEWGATE PRISON in 1813. She founded an association to aid female prisoners, was a frequent visitor to convict ships, and helped convince the government to regulate the conditions for convict voyages to New South Wales. She campaigned in GREAT BRITAIN and in Europe, also working for improved hospital conditions and for accommodations for the homeless.

Gaelic

The Celtic languages spoken in IRELAND, SCOT- LAND, and (until the 19th century) the ISLE OF MAN. They belong to the subgroup called Goidelic, or “q-celtic,” to distinguish them from Welsh and Breton. The variations between the several areas are due to long periods of separate development and prolonged interaction with the encroaching English language. In Ireland, when the IRISH FREE STATE was declared, Gaelic was made the official language, with English as the second language. The western parts of the country had many more native speakers, and the region known as the Gaelthact has been given special support by the Irish government. Nevertheless, the use of Gaelic has declined. In Scotland the number of Gaelic speakers dropped sharply by the beginning of the 20th century, and strenuous efforts have been made to preserve the language there as well.

Gainsborough, Thomas (1727–1788) painter

The son of a wool manufacturer, Gainsborough studied painting in LONDON, then married and lived in Ipswich (1746–60) and Bath (1760–74). He contributed paintings to the Society of Artists and was elected a founding member of the ROYAL ACADEMY. He exhibited at the academy in its early years, but after a dispute he withdrew all his works and exhibited at his own house in London. A landscape painter who developed a style of portraiture using landscape, he was one of the most popular of the 18th-century English artists. He enjoyed royal patronage and many of

his portraits were of leading figures in the society of his day.

Gaitskell, Hugh (1906–1963)

Labour Party leader

Educated at Winchester and New College, OXFORD UNIVERSITY, Gaitskell taught economics at University College, LONDON, 1928–39. He joined the LABOUR PARTY during the GENERAL

STRIKE, was in the CIVIL SERVICE during WORLD

WAR II, and entered PARLIAMENT in 1945. A junior official at the TREASURY, he succeeded Sir

Stafford CRIPPS as CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER

in 1950. In the contest for leadership after Clement ATTLEE’s retirement (1955), he defeated Ernest BEVAN and Herbert MORRISON. After the SUEZ CANAL CRISIS in 1956, it was expected that Labour would win the next election. When they lost in 1959, Gaitskell was convinced that the party needed to be more appealing to the mid- dle-class voter, and he tried to eliminate its commitment to NATIONALIZATION, which the Left regarded as the essential core of its socialist creed. He lost this battle but managed to reverse Labour’s commitment to unilateral DISARMA- MENT in 1960. He died suddenly in 1963 of a rare disease. Harold WILSON took over the party leadership and won the election of 1964, partly on the strength of Gaitskell’s work.

Gallipoli (1915)

During WORLD WAR I the British and French tried to force their way through the straits of the Dardanelles (March 1915). They hoped to knock

Turkey out of the war and establish a supply line to their ally Russia. The naval assault on the straits failed, and it was followed by a landing on the Gallipoli Peninsula. The amphibious assault by 70,000 troops was a bold and desperate maneuver which resulted in very heavy casualties and ended in allied withdrawal in December. This defeat led to the resignations of Admiral John FISHER and First Lord of the ADMIRALTY

Winston CHURCHILL.

Gambia, The

Surrounded by SENEGAL, The Gambia is a West African republic whose borders were created by Britain and France in 1889. Extending inland for 200 miles along the banks of the Gambia River, it had been a location for trading since the 16th century, with a British settlement established in the 17th century. It became a crown COLONY in the 19th century and achieved independence in 1965. The Gambia became a republic in 1970; a federation of Senegambia was established in 1982 but dissolved in 1989. In 1994 there was a military coup, and a new constitution was promulgated in 1996. By banning the parties of former national leaders, the military candidate won the first elections under the new regime.

Gandhi, Mohandas K. (1869–1948)

Indian nationalist leader

After studying law in LONDON, Gandhi practiced in NATAL in the expatriate Indian community, and in 1915 he returned to INDIA to lead the growing nationalist movement. After the AMRIT- SAR MASSACRE (1919) he spurred a nationwide nonviolent protest. He convinced the Indian National Congress to oppose British proposals and adopt his strategy of noncooperation. He did participate in the Round Table Conferences in London (1930–32), which failed to find a solution. Gandhi wanted revival of traditional village society, but he also preached toleration between Hindu and Moslem. That was radical

for the period of partition between India and PAKISTAN, which measure he opposed. India achieved independence in 1947, and Gandhi was assassinated in 1948 by a Hindu fanatic.

Gardiner, Stephen (ca. 1483–1555) bishop

An influential church figure during the REFOR- MATION, Gardiner was secretary to Cardinal WOLSEY and assisted with HENRY VIII’s efforts to obtain a divorce. In 1531 he became secretary to the king and BISHOP of Winchester in 1533. His book De Vera Obedientia (1535) supported the king’s position on royal control of the church. In the reordering of the church, Gardiner reluctantly supported the changes in governance, but he opposed any change in doctrine. This made him the adversary of Thomas CROMWELL, whose policies he contested. In the Protestant period under EDWARD VI, Gardiner lost his place as bishop and was sent to the TOWER OF LONDON. On MARY I’s accession, he was restored as bishop and made LORD CHANCELLOR. He officiated at Mary’s marriage to Philip of Spain, and he worked to restore papal authority in ENGLAND.

Garrick, David (1717–1779) actor

The son of an army officer and a student of Samuel JOHNSON, Garrick pursued the law, then the wine trade, and finally became an actor. His skill made him the nation’s most popular stage figure for nearly 40 years, especially in his Shakespearean productions. He became the manager of the DRURY LANE THEATRE in 1747, where he introduced many innovations in staging and production.

gavelkind

A form of landholding in which the inheritance was partible—i.e., widows received half, and the remainder was shared among the male heirs—as opposed to the undivided inheritance