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under PRIMOGENITURE. Failing any male heirs, females shared equally under both systems. Gavelkind was the principal form of tenure in the county of Kent, and it also was followed in WALES and IRELAND. It was abolished in English law in 1925.

General Assembly

Created in the Scottish REFORMATION in 1560, the General Assembly was the senior body in the government of the CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. In its first version there were six ministers and 35 laymen. As the assembly represented the PRESBYTE- RIAN structure of authority, it frequently was in conflict with the royal policies of the STUART

kings, JAMES VII AND I and CHARLES I in particu-

lar. In 1690 it became the supreme authority in the established Church of Scotland. The assembly now has over 1,200 clergy and laymen who meet under an elected moderator.

general election

The elections of members of the HOUSE OF COM- MONS were once held only at times when PAR- LIAMENT had been summoned by the Crown. In 1694 statutory regulation called for an election every three years. The period was increased to seven years in 1716, and in 1911 it was reduced to five years, where it remains today. The term is a maximum, and the PRIME MINISTER is able to dissolve Parliament and call for a general election at any time before that limit. The election campaign is a combination of the efforts by the national parties to present a platform to attract the voter and individual campaigns in each sin- gle-member constituency. Campaigns are limited to three or four weeks, campaign spending is strictly regulated, and proportional television time is provided to major parties. The winning candidate is the person with the largest number of votes in the constituency, whether or not that is a majority. The leader of the party winning the most seats will be asked by the sovereign to form a government.

General Strike (1926)

A total stoppage of work was viewed in the labor movement as the ultimate weapon against the capitalist system. The one attempt to do this in GREAT BRITAIN was a failure. For nine days in May 1926, about 2.5 million workers from different unions went on strike in support of the miners’ union. The government introduced emergency legislation, volunteers took up many critical positions, and the POLICE and ARMY remained loyal. The strike was called off, but the miners remained out for several more months, when they returned to work at lower pay. The following year an act was passed declaring such general strikes illegal, and union membership declined, though the act was repealed in 1946.

general warrant

An order issued by a SECRETARY OF STATE for the arrest of unspecified persons in connection with a specific act. The practice was authorized by a licensing act in 1662 for use against seditious publications. This usage was dramatized in 1763, when warrants were issued in connection with issue No. 45 of the North Briton; John WILKES and 48 others were arrested. Chief Justice Sir Charles Pratt declared the warrants illegal, and Wilkes later won a damage claim against the secretary for wrongful arrest (1769).

gentry

The general term for families of lesser aristocratic status, usually landowners, from the 16th to the 19th century. Ranks defined as gentry included BARONETs, KNIGHTs, esquires, and gentlemen. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the College of Heralds kept some control over the use of coats of arms, but by the end of the 17th century the number of claimants overwhelmed any such control. Some official titles carried this status: a JUSTICE OF THE PEACE was automatically an “esquire,” but the minimum qualification of £100 for that office meant that over time the title might go to persons of less real wealth. In

addition the unofficial label “gentleman” was increasingly appropriated without a legitimate claim. Meanwhile, among large landowners there were people with vast fortunes and no peerage. In an 1883 survey, over half the landowners with more than 10,000 acres were members of the gentry. By that date political reforms were beginning to erode the once dominant political position of the gentry.

George I (1660–1727)

king of Great Britain and Ireland, 1714–1727

George I was an accomplished soldier who fought under the duke of MARLBOROUGH. His mother, Electress Sophia of Hanover, had been named in the Act of Succession of 1701 as the heir to the throne, as she was the granddaughter of JAMES VI AND I and the nearest Protestant in the line of succession. She died weeks before Queen ANNE, and George took the throne peacefully in August 1714. He appointed a WHIG ministry and continued to manage the affairs of HANOVER. His divided attention did not endear him to his British subjects, but they did repel the JACOBITE rebellion in 1715. The king was generous with pardons for the rebels, but his political advice now came exclusively from the Whigs. The distractions of Hanover helped to reduce the king’s role in British politics, while his chief minister Robert WALPOLE assumed more and more

PATRONAGE and power.

George II (1683–1760)

king of Great Britain and Ireland, 1727–1760

A soldier like his father, George II was the last British king to lead troops in battle (Dettingen, 1743). As PRINCE OF WALES he was on bad terms with his father, who expelled him from the court in 1717. He created a rival court and worked with opposition WHIG leaders like Robert WALPOLE, who became PRIME MINISTER in 1721. He was retained in that post when George II came to the throne six years later. This continuity was also fostered by the persistent threat of JACOBITES’ rebellion and the Whigs’ policy of peace and

economy. With the War of AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (1740–48), the king used British forces in aid of his Hanoverian interests and found himself facing mounting parliamentary opposition. He had to summon ministers whom he disliked, especially William PITT, who became the hero of the SEVEN YEARS’ WAR. In this generation there also was a father-son split: in 1737 Frederick, Prince of Wales (1707–1751), established a rival court, and his son, the future GEORGE III, grew up with a passionate distaste for the “Old Corps” Whigs who were then in power.

George III (1738–1820)

king of Great Britain and Ireland, 1760–1820

The grandson of GEORGE II and the first Hanoverian ruler born in GREAT BRITAIN, George III came to the throne determined to rid politics of corruption. His main tools were the exercise of royal power and the restoration of TORY politicians. He tried to act as his own PRIME MINISTER, but his reign showed an increase in the influence of PARLIAMENT, especially the HOUSE OF COMMONS, and furthermore saw the most severe internal and external crises. He ordered in troops to quell the GORDON RIOTS of 1780 when LONDON was ravaged by mobs for 10 days; he stubbornly pursued the war in the AMERICAN COLONIES, which ended with their independence; he faced the threat of revolutionary France (1789) but was no longer mentally competent at the time of WATERLOO (1815); and a dangerous rebellion in IRELAND required a new constitution for the UNITED KINGDOM (1801). The strains of his reign actually produced an entirely different form of government: not one of royal management but one of parliamentary management, ministerial responsibility, and a steadily growing stream of reform ideas—not to increase executive control, but rather to improve the process of choosing members of Parliament, so as to control the executive, and to control the rapidly expanding functions of government. This stream also had powerful whirlpools of radical unrest: Major John CARTWRIGHT’s democratic ideas, William COBBETT’s agrarian RADICALISM, Thomas

King George III (Library of Congress)

PAINE’s American and French republican notions, the briefly ecumenical UNITED IRISHMEN, the fer-

vent cause of CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION, and the

array of working and middle-class radicals of the early 19th century. This unrest was not the cause of the king’s recurrent mental problems. Modern diagnosis suggests that he suffered from a kidney disorder (porphyria) which brought on periods of apparent insanity. These episodes created REGENCY crises in 1765 and 1788. In 1810 George III went into a serious decline, accompanied by loss of eyesight and hearing. His son became regent in 1811, and the king died in 1820.

George IV (1762–1830)

king of the United Kingdom, 1820–1830

The eldest son of GEORGE III rebelled against his parents’ strict upbringing and lived a life of fashion and immorality. George IV indulged extrav-

agant tastes, spent lavishly, and lived dangerously. He was secretly married to Maria Fitzherbert, a Roman Catholic, in 1785, a union that continued until 1811. During this period he formally married Princess CAROLINE OF BRUNS- WICK in 1795 (while intoxicated), separated the following year, and tried to divorce her in 1820. He was not an effective ruler, and he was succeeded by his brother WILLIAM IV in 1830.

George V (1865–1936)

king of the United Kingdom, 1910–1936

The second son of EDWARD VII, George V had pursued a naval career until his older brother died in 1892. He became PRINCE OF WALES in 1901 and made tours of the empire as the heir apparent. When he came to the throne in 1910, the HOUSE OF LORDS was about to reject the BUD- GET, and he promised to create enough new peers, if necessary, to allow it to pass. The peers relented, but their assertion of power brought on the PARLIAMENT Act of 1911, which permanently reduced their power. Meanwhile, an IRISH HOME RULE bill was introduced, and the king tried to soothe parties in that matter at a BUCK- INGHAM PALACE conference in 1914. All of this was before the great calamity of WORLD WAR I. In that event, the king was clearly a figurehead, but to placate intense national feeling, he did order the royal family’s name changed from SaxeCoburg to WINDSOR in 1917. He was succeeded by his eldest son, EDWARD VIII.

George VI (1895–1952)

king of the United Kingdom, 1936–1952

George VI, the second son of GEORGE V, served in the NAVY and the air force in WORLD WAR I. He was the next in line when his brother EDWARD VIII abdicated in 1936 (see ABDICATION CRISIS). Though shy and afflicted with a stammer, he earned great respect, especially during WORLD

WAR II, remaining in BUCKINGHAM PALACE during

the BLITZ, touring sites of bombing, and visiting troops abroad. He was succeeded by his daugh-

ter ELIZABETH II.

Ghana

Located on Africa’s western coast and known as the Gold Coast when British merchants first made contact in the 17th century, Ghana became a lucrative source of slaves. British control was only over coastal forts until later in the 19th century. A crown COLONY was proclaimed in 1874, with further extension in 1901. Independence for Ghana was granted in 1957.

Gibbon, Edward (1737–1794) historian

Gibbon studied briefly at OXFORD UNIVERSITY and then on the continent, where he went after his conversion to Roman Catholicism forced him to leave Oxford. A journey to Italy inspired The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, the first volume appearing in 1776. He was criticized for blaming the empire’s fall on the influence of the Christian church, but his masterful survey (completed in 1787) was a major success. He

was a MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from 1774 and

supported the ministry of Lord NORTH during the American Revolution.

Gibbons, Grinling (1648–1721) woodcarver

Born in Rotterdam, Gibbons was working in ENGLAND by the 1660s. His carvings are found in

WINDSOR Castle, ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, and HAMP-

TON COURT PALACE. More of his work is found in

the VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM and in country

houses such as Petworth in West Sussex.

Gibraltar

With an area of 2.5 square miles, the smallest British COLONY was captured in 1704 and ceded to GREAT BRITAIN by treaty in 1713. The rock stands at the western entrance to the Mediterranean and retains its strategic significance. Spain’s interest in retaking the area was shown when it closed the frontier in 1969, after residents had voted in a referendum in 1967 to remain British. In 1981 they were given British

citizenship, and in 1985 Spain lifted restrictions on the colony’s frontier.

Gilbert, Humphrey (1539?–1583) explorer

Educated at Eton and OXFORD UNIVERSITY, Gilbert served in 1562 in an expedition to Le Havre. He wrote Discourse on a Northwest Passage to India in 1566. After going to IRELAND to assist in Elizabethan colonization there (1566, 1569), he made attempts on his proposed route for a NORTHWEST PASSAGE in 1579 and 1583. The first was a failure; the second landed in NEWFOUNDLAND, which he claimed for the Crown. He died in a storm on the return journey.

Gilbert, William S. See GILBERT AND

SULLIVAN.

Gilbert and Sullivan

William S. Gilbert (1836–1911) and Arthur Sullivan (1842–1900) produced a unique and enduring series of comic operas which were a landmark in public entertainment in the later 19th century. Gilbert had practiced law with no great success and turned to writing librettos. Sullivan was an accomplished academy musician, composer of a symphony and lighter works. They met in 1871, and their first success was Trial by Jury (1875). Their lighthearted, satirical style was a sensation, and it continued with The Pirates of Penzance (1879), The Mikado (1885), and The Grand Duke (1896).

Girl Guides

Founded in 1910, the Girl Guides were inspired by the BOY SCOUT movement. In fact, Robert BADEN-POWELL’s sister used her own funds to establish the group, which enlisted 8,000 girls in its first year. There was some reluctance to form a female organization, both from Baden-Powell himself, and from others who saw some connection to the SUFFRAGETTES and more generally

to the WOMEN’S MOVEMENT. In 1914 a group for eightto 11-year-olds was formed, known first as the Rosebuds, later as the Brownies. By 1915 Robert Baden-Powell assumed the leadership of the organization, and the first international conference met in 1920. By the end of the 20th century the movement had spread to 100 countries and enlisted more than 8 million girls.

Gladstone, William Ewart

(1809–1898)

prime minister, 1868–1874, 1880–1885, 1886, 1892–1894

Gladstone was a MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT from

1832 until 1895. At first a TORY, he held posts under Robert PEEL. He served as CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER twice in the 1850s, left the CON- SERVATIVE PARTY in 1859, and became leader of the fledgling LIBERAL PARTY in 1867.

Gladstone was noted for several key policy positions: fiscal frugality, rational reform of institutions, and support of nationalist movements. In his years as chancellor he reduced public spending, cut taxes, and expanded FREE TRADE. These were steps designed to promote prosperity and to fulfill the Liberal goal of reducing government intrusion in the economy. As he became a national leader, he left behind many of his earlier positions in both religion and politics. He firmly believed that there was a moral basis of politics and that it should manifest itself in toleration and integrity. He showed his support of nonconformity with policies such as abolition of church rates, the EDUCATION Act of 1870, and the disestablishment of the CHURCH OF IRELAND. The natural extensions of his views of economy and integrity were the reforms he sponsored in the army, the civil service, and the high courts (see JUDICATURE ACT).

Gladstone was also convinced of the moral value of national sentiment. In his day, the cause of nationalism aroused strong support as a means to combat the regressive autocracies of Europe, and national entities seemed to be the logical foundation for emerging international agreements (extradition, arbitration, law of the

William Ewart Gladstone (Hulton/Archive)

sea). Nationalists within the BRITISH EMPIRE were not, however, so equably perceived. Thus in the 1880s there were several incidents where he felt it necessary to use force against colonial populations: in SOUTH AFRICA (1881), in EGYPT (1882), and in The SUDAN (1885). In those same years he was struggling to work out a solution to the “Irish Question.” His basic view was that legitimate aspirations could be met: the Catholic church could be appeased; the Irish tenant could be assisted; and above all, there was a valid demand for an Irish PARLIAMENT as part of a plan for IRISH HOME RULE. The last issue proved to be his undoing. In 1886 he pushed a bill that split his party and failed to pass. The second attempt in 1893 passed the HOUSE OF

COMMONS but failed in the HOUSE OF LORDS. He

resigned from office for the last time at age 84, one of the most influential leaders of the 19th century.

Glencoe massacre (1692)

WILLIAM III required Scottish CLAN leaders suspected of JACOBITE sympathies to take an oath recognizing his authority before January 1, 1692. The Macdonald chief presented himself and took the oath just after the deadline, but this was kept quiet. The authorities in EDINBURGH therefore dispatched a force to require the Macdonalds to submit; this force was made up of their rivals the Campbells. The Campbells accepted the hospitality of the Macdonalds, and then turned on them, killing 38 of their hosts. There was no punishment for the killers, even after a commission in 1695 had determined their guilt. The incident was condemned by the Scottish parliament and provided more fuel for Jacobite resistance.

Glendower, Owen (ca. 1355–ca. 1415)

Welsh prince and rebel

A landowner of princely descent on both sides of his family, he led the last major Welsh revolt against English rule (1400–08). He had trained in English law, served in the armies of RICHARD II, and chafed at the exploitation of the Welsh. He found allies in France and in the English aristocracy, he summoned parliamentary assemblies, and he planned for a native regime. However, English power eventually was too great, and his forces were defeated by 1408. Glendower admitted defeat in 1415; his end is unknown.

Glorious Revolution (1688–1689)

The replacement of JAMES VII AND II by WILLIAM

III and his wife MARY II was named the Glorious Revolution because it was accomplished with such ease and so little loss of life (except in IRE- LAND). James had appeared to be intent upon a policy of Catholic restoration. He was revising BOROUGH governments and commissions of the peace, and he had called an election for a new PARLIAMENT, based on the altered FRANCHISEs. He

had issued a DECLARATION OF INDULGENCE and

ordered it read from all pulpits, and he had put seven bishops on trial for SEDITION when they objected (see SEVEN BISHOPS’ CASE). In June 1688

his wife gave birth to a son, ensuring that a Catholic heir to the throne would succeed him. At this point senior WHIG and TORY leaders joined in signing a letter to William of Orange, begging him to intervene. As there had been ample communication between William and English leaders, it is likely that the request came as no surprise. In any event, William prepared to invade, James hastily revoked many of his recent acts, and in November the Dutch prince landed in southwestern ENGLAND. Many of James’s officers deserted, and he decided to flee to France, but he was captured on his first attempt. Once he was in exile, a CON- VENTION Parliament was elected and began to negotiate with William. The sequels included the

BILL OF RIGHTS in England, the CLAIM OF RIGHT in

SCOTLAND, plus a war in Ireland, and King William’s War against France (1689–97).

Gloucester, Humphrey, duke of

(1390/91–1447) protector of England

The youngest son of HENRY IV and brother of HENRY V, Gloucester served as protector after his brother’s death in 1422, until HENRY VI assumed power in 1429. He was involved in bitter quarrels among the royal advisers, especially with Henry BEAUFORT, his uncle. The main disputes were about affairs in France. He lost influence, especially after his wife’s trial for witchcraft (1442). He was accused of treason but died before his trial. He had been known as a patron of humanist scholars, and his library was donated to OXFORD UNIVERSITY, where it became the nucleus for the Bodleian Library (See BODLEY, SIR THOMAS).

Glyndwr, Owain See GLENDOWER, OWEN.

Goderich, Frederick John Robinson, viscount (1782–1859)

(first earl of Ripon) prime minister, 1827–28

Although he had the distinction of introducing one of the famous CORN LAWS (1815), Goderich

served as president of the BOARD OF TRADE and

CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER in the 1820s, and

he led the way toward reducing TARIFFS and removing NAVIGATION ACTS under the Liberal Tories. He was briefly PRIME MINISTER after the death of George CANNING, and he held office later under Charles GREY and Robert PEEL.

Godolphin, Sidney Godolphin, first earl of (1645–1712)

prime minister, 1702–1710

Lord Godolphin entered PARLIAMENT in 1668 and held numerous offices under CHARLES II, JAMES VII AND II, and Queen ANNE. He was lord treasurer (1702–10) and as such was responsible for financing ENGLAND’s armed forces in a period of exceptionally costly fighting.

Godwin, William (1756–1836) radical author

Born in Cambridgeshire, Godwin was the son of a dissenting minister. Raised with strict Calvinist beliefs, he attended Hoxton Academy. He was the pastor of a congregation at Stowmarket for five years, but he lost his faith and passed from this career into one as a writer. His Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Political Justice (1793) was an anarchist manifesto, deriving some inspiration from the events of the French Revolution and placing him in the pantheon of radicals. He also wrote novels, the best known being Caleb Williams (1794). He married Mary WOLLSTONE- CRAFT (1797), and their daughter Mary married Percy Bysshe SHELLEY.

Gold Coast See GHANA.

Golding, William (1911–1993) novelist

Born in Cornwall, the son of a schoolmaster, Golding studied at Brasenose College, OXFORD UNIVERSITY. He taught school and served in the NAVY during WORLD WAR II. His first novel and

probably his best work, Lord of the Flies (1954), was the story of shipwrecked boys trying to maintain a form of civilized life. He also wrote

The Inheritors (1955), Pincher Martin (1956), Free Fall (1959), The Spire (1964), Darkness Visible

(1979), and Rites of Passage (1980). He received the Nobel Prize in literature in 1983.

Goldsmith, Oliver (1728–1774) author

Born near Longford, Goldsmith’s father was a curate. At age eight he suffered a bout with smallpox and was badly disfigured. He attended Trinity College, DUBLIN, and then studied in EDIN- BURGH. Moving to LONDON, he wrote for the Monthly Review. His essays attracted the interest of Samuel JOHNSON, who helped him to publish The Vicar of Wakefield (1766). Goldsmith’s greatest poetic work was The Deserted Village (1770). He also wrote two plays: The Good-Natured Man

(1768) and She Stoops to Conquer (1773).

Goodall, Jane (1934– ) primatologist

Born in LONDON, Goodall left school and went to work with Louis Leakey in Africa. She began work with chimpanzees in 1960 at Lake Tanganyika, observing the animals in their habitat and noting their varied social behaviors. The world’s leading authority on chimpanzees, she has continued to work extensively to protect the species. Goodall’s books include In the Shadow of Man (1971) and The Chimpanzees of Gombe (1986).

Gordon, Charles George (1833–1885) general

Gordon served in the CRIMEAN WAR and later led the defense of Shanghai during the Taiping Rebellion (1863–64). In the service of the government of EGYPT, he was engaged in the administration of the SUDAN (1873–80). He was sent back in 1884 to evacuate an Egyptian garrison from KHARTOUM and was besieged there by forces of the Mahdi (a Muslim holy warrior