ВУЗ: Казахская Национальная Академия Искусств им. Т. Жургенова
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8
Power supplies and PSRR
Power supply technologies
There are three principal ways to power an amplifier:
1 a simple unregulated power supply consisting of transformer, rectifiers,
and reservoir capacitors,
2 a linear regulated power supply,
3 a switch-mode power supply.
It is immediately obvious that the first and simplest option will be the most
cost-effective, but at a first glance it seems likely to compromise noise and
ripple performance, and possibly interchannel crosstalk. It is therefore
worthwhile to examine the pros and cons of each technology in a little
more detail:
Simple unregulated power supplies
Advantages
!
Simple, reliable, and cheap. (Relatively speaking – the traditional copper
and iron mains transformer will probably be the most expensive
component in the amplifier.)
!
No possibility of instability or HF interference from switching
frequencies.
!
The amplifier can deliver higher power on transient peaks, which is just
what is required.
Disadvantages
!
Significant ripple is present on the DC output and the PSRR of the
amplifier will need careful attention.
!
The mains transformer will be relatively heavy and bulky.
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Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
!
Transformer primary tappings must be changed for different countries
and mains voltages.
!
The absence of switch-mode technology does not mean total silence as
regards RF emissions. The bridge rectifier will generate bursts of RF at a
100 Hz repetition rate as the diodes turn off. This worsens with
increasing current drawn.
Linear regulated power supplies
Advantages
!
Can be designed so that virtually no ripple is present on the DC output (in
other words the ripple is below the white noise the regulator generates)
allowing relaxation of amplifier supply-rail rejection requirements.
However, you can only afford to be careless with the PSRR of the power
amp if the regulators can maintain completely clean supply-rails in the
face of sudden current demands. If not, there will be interchannel
crosstalk unless there is a separate regulator for each channel. This means
four for a stereo amplifier, making the overall system very expensive.
!
A regulated output voltage gives absolutely consistent audio power
output in the face of mains voltage variation.
!
The possibility exists of electronic shutdown in the event of an amplifier
DC fault, so that an output relay can be dispensed with. However, this
adds significant circuitry, and there is no guarantee that a failed output
device will not cause a collateral failure in the regulators which leaves
the speakers still in jeopardy.
Disadvantages
!
Complex and therefore potentially less reliable. The overall amplifier
system is at least twice as complicated. The much higher component-
count must reduce overall reliability, and getting it working in the first
place will take longer and be more difficult. For an example circuit see
Sinclair
[1]
. If the power amplifier fails, due to an output device failure,
then the regulator devices will probably also be destroyed, as protecting
semiconductors with fuses is a very doubtful business; in fact it is
virtually impossible. The old joke about the transistors protecting the
fuse is not at all funny to power-amplifier designers, because this is
precisely what happens. Electronic overload protection for the regulator
sections is therefore essential to avert the possibility of a domino-effect
failure, and this adds further complications, as it will probably need to
be some sort of foldback protection characteristic if the regulator
transistors are to have a realistic prospect of survival.
!
Comparatively expensive, requiring at least two more power semi-
conductors, with associated control circuitry and over-current protec-
tion. These power devices in turn need heatsinks and mounting
hardware, checking for shorts in production, etc.
236
Power supplies and PSRR
!
Transformer tappings must still be changed for different mains
voltages.
!
IC voltage regulators are usually ruled out by the voltage and current
requirements, so it must be a discrete design, and these are not simple to
make bulletproof. Cannot usually be bought in as an OEM item, except
at uneconomically high cost.
!
May show serious HF instability problems, either alone or in combina-
tion with the amplifiers powered. The regulator output impedance is
likely to rise with frequency, and this can give rise to some really
unpleasant sorts of HF instability. Some of my worst amplifier experi-
ences have involved (very) conditional stability in such amplifiers.
!
The amplifier can no longer deliver higher power on transient peaks.
!
The overall power dissipation for a given output is considerably
increased, due to the minimum voltage-drop though the regulator
system.
!
The response to transient current demands is likely to be slow, affecting
slewing behaviour.
Switch-mode power supplies
Advantages
!
Ripple can be considerably lower than for unregulated power supplies,
though never as low as a good linear regulator design. 20 mV pk–pk is
typical.
!
There is no heavy mains transformer, giving a considerable saving in
overall equipment weight. This can be important in PA equipment.
!
Can be bought in as an OEM item; in fact this is virtually compulsory as
switch-mode design is a specialised job for experts.
!
Can be arranged to shutdown if amplifier develops a dangerous DC
offset.
!
Can be specified to operate properly, and give the same audio output
without adjustment, over the entire possible worldwide mains-voltage
range, which is normally taken as 90–260 V.
Disadvantages
!
A prolific source of high-frequency interference. This can be extremely
difficult to eradicate entirely from the audio output.
!
The 100 Hz ripple output is significant, as noted above, and will require
the usual PSRR precautions in the amplifiers.
!
Much more complex and therefore less reliable than unregulated
supplies. Dangerous if not properly cased, as high DC voltage is
present.
!
The response to transient current demands is likely to be relatively
slow.
237
Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
On perusing the above list, it seems clear that regulated supplies for power
amplifiers are a Bad Thing. Not everyone agrees with me; see for example
Linsley-Hood
[2]
. Unfortunately he does not adduce any evidence to
support his case.
The usual claim is that linear regulated supplies give tighter bass; advocates
of this position are always careful not to define tighter bass too closely, so
no-one can disprove the notion. If the phrase means anything, it
presumably refers to changes in the low-frequency transient response;
however since no such changes can be detected, this appears to be simply
untrue. If properly designed, all three approaches can give excellent sound,
so it makes sense to go for the easiest solution; with the unregulated supply
the main challenge is to keep the ripple out of the audio, which will be seen
to be straightforward if tackled logically. The linear regulated approach
presents instead the challenge of designing not one but two complex
negative-feedback systems, close-coupled in what can easily become a
deadly embrace if one of the partners shows any HF instability. As for
switchmode supplies, their design is very much a matter for specialists.
The generic amplifier designs examined in this book have excellent supply-
rail rejection, and so a simple unregulated supply is perfectly adequate. The
use of regulated supplies is definitely unnecessary, and I would recommend
strongly against their use. At best, you have doubled the amount of high-
power circuitry to be bought, built, and tested. At worst, you could have
intractable HF stability problems, peculiar slew-limiting, and some
expensive device failures.
Design considerations for power supplies
A typical unregulated power supply is shown in Figure 8.1. This is wholly
conventional in concept, though for optimal hum performance the wiring
238
Figure 8.1
A simple unregulated
power supply,
including rectifier-
snubbing and
X-capacitor.
Power supplies and PSRR
topology and physical layout need close attention, and this point is rarely
made.
For amplifiers of moderate power the total reservoir capacitance per rail
usually ranges from 4700 to 20,000 µF, though some designs have much
more. Ripple current ratings must be taken seriously. It is often claimed that
large amounts of reservoir capacitance give firmer bass; this is untrue for all
normal amplifier designs below clipping.
I do not propose to go through the details of designing a simple PSU, as
such data can be found in standard textbooks, but I instead offer some hints
and warnings that are either rarely published or are especially relevant to
audio amplifier design.
Mains transformers
The mains transformer will normally be either the traditional E-&-I frame
type, or a toroid. The frame type is used where price is more important than
compactness or external field, and vice-versa. There are various other types
of transformer, such as C-core, or R-core, but they do not seem to be able
to match the low external field of the toroid, while being significantly more
expensive than the frame type.
The external field of a frame transformer can be significantly reduced by
specifying a hum strap, or belly-band as it is sometimes rather indelicately
called. This is a wide strip of copper that forms a closed circuit around the
outside of the core and windings, so it does not form a shorted turn in the
main transformer flux. Instead it intersects with the leakage flux, partially
cancelling it.
The design of the mains transformer for a given voltage at a given current
is simple in principle, but in practice always seems to involve a degree of
trial and error. The main reason for this is that the voltage developed on the
reservoir capacitors depends on losses that are not easily predicted, and
this is inherent in any rectifier circuit where the current flows only in short
sharp peaks at the crest of the AC waveform.
Firstly the voltage developed depends on the transformer regulation, i.e. the
amount the voltage drops as more current is drawn. (The word regulation
in this context has nothing to do with negative-feedback voltage control –
unfortunate and confusing, but there it is.) Transformer manufactures are
usually reluctant to predict anything more than a very approximate figure
for this.
Voltage losses also depend strongly on the peak amplitude of the charging
pulses from the rectifier to the reservoir; these peaks cause voltage drops in
the AC wiring, transformer winding resistances, and rectifiers that are rather
larger than might be expected. Unfortunately the peak current value is
poorly defined, by wiring resistance and transformer leakage reactance (a
239