ВУЗ: Казахская Национальная Академия Искусств им. Т. Жургенова
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Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
parameter that transformer manufacturers are even more reluctant to
predict) and any calculations are so rough that they are really valueless.
There may also be uncertainties in the voltage efficiency of the amplifier
itself, and there are so many variables that it is only realistic to expect to try
two or three transformer designs before the exact output power required is
obtained.
Since most amplifiers are intended to reproduce music and speech, with
high peak-to-average power ratios, they will operate satisfactorily with
transformers rated to supply only 70% of the current required for extended
sinewave operation, and in a competitive market the cost savings are
significant. Trouble comes when the amplifiers are subjected to sinewave
testing, and a transformer so rated will probably fail from internal
overheating, though it may take an hour or more for the temperatures to
climb high enough. The usual symptom is breakdown of the interlayer
winding insulation, the resultant shorted turns causing the primary mains
fuse to blow. This process is usually undramatic, without visible transformer
damage or the evolution of smoke, but it does of course ruin an expensive
component.
To prevent such failures when a mains transformer is deliberately
underrated, some form of thermal cutout is essential. Self-resetting cutouts
based on snap-action bimetal discs are physically small enough to be
buried in the outer winding layers and work very well. They are usually
chosen to act at 100 or 110°C, as transformer materials are usually rated to
120°C unless special construction is required.
If the primary side of the mains transformer has multiple taps for multi-
country operation, remember that some of the primary wiring will carry
much greater currents at low voltage tappings; the mains current drawn
on 90 V input will be nearly 3 times that at 240 V, for the same power
out.
Fusing and rectification
The rectifier (almost always a packaged bridge) must be generously rated to
withstand the initial current surge as the reservoirs charge from empty on
switch-on. Rectifier heatsinking is definitely required for most sizes of
amplifier; the voltage drop in a silicon rectifier may be low (1 V per diode
is a good approximation for rough calculation) but the current pulses are
large and the total dissipation is significant.
Reservoir capacitors must have the incoming wiring from the rectifier going
directly to the capacitor terminals; likewise the outgoing wiring to the HT
rails must leave from these terminals. In other words, do not run a tee off
to the cap, because if you do its resistance combined with the high-current
charging pulses adds narrow extra peaks to the ripple crests on the DC
output and may worsen the hum/ripple level on the audio.
240
Power supplies and PSRR
The cabling to and from the rectifiers carry charging pulses that have a
considerably higher peak value than the DC output current. Conductor
heating is therefore much greater due to the higher value of I-squared-R.
Heating is likely to be especially severe if connectors are involved.
Fuseholders may also heat up and consideration should be given to using
heavy-duty types. Keep an eye on the fuses; if the fusewire sags at turn-on,
or during transients, the fuse will fail after a few dozen hours, and the rated
value needs to be increased.
When selecting the value of the mains fuse in the transformer primary
circuit, remember that toroidal transformers take a large current surge at
switch-on. The fuse will definitely need to be of the slow-blow type.
The bridge rectifier must be adequately rated for long-term reliability, and
it needs proper heat-sinking.
RF emissions from bridge rectifiers
Bridge rectifiers, even the massive ones intended solely for 100 Hz power
rectification, generate surprising quantities of RF. This happens when the
bridge diodes turn off; the charge carriers are swept rapidly from the junction
and the current flow stops with a sudden jolt that generates harmonics well
into the RF bands. The greater the current, the more RF produced, though it is
not generally possible to predict how steep this increase will be. The effect
can often be heard by placing a transistor radio (long or medium wave) near
the amplifier mains cable. It is the only area in a conventional power
amplifier likely to give trouble in EMC emissions testing
[3]
.
Even if the amplifier is built into a solidly-grounded metal case, and the
mains transformer has a grounded electrostatic screen, RF will be emitted
via the live and neutral mains connections. The first line of defence against
this is usually four snubbing capacitors of approx. 100 nF across each diode
of the bridge, to reduce the abruptness of the turn-off. If these are to do any
good, it is vital that they are all as close as possible to the bridge rectifier
connections. (Never forget that such capacitors must be of the type
intended to withstand continuous AC stress.)
The second line of defence against RF egress is an X-capacitor wired
between Live and Neutral, as near to the mains inlet as possible (see Figure
8.1). This is usually only required on larger power amplifiers of 300 W total
and above. The capacitor must be of the special type that can withstand
direct mains connection. 100 nF is usually effective; some safety standards
set a maximum of 470 nF.
Power supply-rail rejection in amplifiers
The literature on power amplifiers frequently discusses the importance of
power-supply rejection in audio amplifiers, particularly in reference to its
possible effects on distortion
[4]
.
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Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
I hope I have shown in Chapters 5 and 6 that regulated power supplies are
just not unnecessary for an exemplary THD performance. I want to confirm
this by examining just how supply-rail disturbances insinuate themselves
into an amplifier output, and the ways in which this rail-injection can be
effectively eliminated. My aim is not just the production of hum-free
amplifiers, but also to show that there is nothing inherently mysterious in
power-supply effects, no matter what Subjectivists may say on the
subject.
The effects of inadequate power-supply rejection ratio (PSRR) in a typical
Class-B power amplifier with a simple unregulated supply, may be two-
fold:
1 a proportion of the 100 Hz ripple on the rails will appear at the output,
degrading the noise/hum performance. Most people find this much more
disturbing than the equivalent amount of distortion,
2 the rails also carry a signal-related component, due to their finite
impedance. In a Class-B amplifier this will be in the form of half-wave
pulses, as the output current is drawn from the two supply-rails
alternately; if this enters the signal path it will degrade the THD
seriously.
The second possibility, the intrusion of distortion by supply-rail injection,
can be eliminated in practice, at least in the conventional amplifier
architecture so far examined. The most common defect seems to be
misconnected rail bypass capacitors, which add copious ripple and
distortion into the signal if their return lines share the signal ground; this
was denoted No. 5 (Rail Decoupling Distortion) on my list of distortion
mechanisms in Chapter 3.
This must not be confused with distortion caused by inductive coupling of
halfwave supply currents into the signal path – this effect is wholly
unrelated and is completely determined by the care put into physical
layout; I labelled this Distortion No. 6 (Induction Distortion).
Assuming the rail bypass capacitors are connected correctly, with a
separate ground return, ripple and distortion can only enter the amplifier
directly through the circuitry. It is my experience that if the amplifier is
made ripple-proof under load, then it is proof against distortion-com-
ponents from the rails as well; this bold statement does however require a
couple of qualifications:
Firstly, the output must be ripple-free under load, i.e. with a substantial
ripple amplitude on the rails. If a Class-B amplifier is measured for ripple
output when quiescent, there will be a very low amplitude on the supply-
rails and the measurement may be very good; but this gives no assurance
that hum will not be added to the signal when the amplifier is operating and
drawing significant current from the reservoir capacitors. Spectrum analysis
could be used to sort the ripple from the signal under drive, but it is simpler
242
Power supplies and PSRR
to leave the amplifier undriven and artificially provoke ripple on the HT
rails by loading them with a sizeable power resistor; in my work I have
standardised on drawing 1 A. Thus one rail at a time can be loaded; since
the rail rejection mechanisms are quite different for V+ and V–, this is a
great advantage.
Drawing 1 A from the V– rail of the typical power amplifier in Figure 8.2
degraded the measured ripple output from –88 dBu (mostly noise) to
–80 dBu.
Secondly, I assume that any rail filtering arrangements will work with
constant or increasing effectiveness as frequency increases; this is clearly
true for resistor-capacitor (RC) filtering, but is by no means certain for
electronic decoupling such as the NFB current-source biasing used in the
design in Chapter 6. (These will show declining effectiveness with
frequency as internal loop-gains fall.) Thus, if 100 Hz components are
below the noise in the THD residual, it can usually be assumed that
disturbances at higher frequencies will also be invisible, and not
contributing to the total distortion.
To start with some hard experimental facts, I took a power amplifier –
similar to Figure 8.2 – powered by an unregulated supply on the same PCB
243
Figure 8.2
Diagram of a
generic power
amplifier, with
diode biasing for
input tail and VAS
source
Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook
(the significance of this proximity will become clear in a moment) driving
140 W rms into 8 ! at 1 kHz. The PSU was a conventional bridge rectifier
feeding 10,000 µF reservoir capacity per rail.
The 100 Hz rail ripple under these conditions was 1 V pk–pk. Super-
imposed on this were the expected halfwave pulses at signal frequency;
measured at the PCB track just before the HT fuse, their amplitude was
about 100 mV peak-peak. This doubled to 200 mV on the downstream side
of the fuse – the small resistance of a 6.3 A slow-blow fuse is sufficient to
double this aspect of the PSRR problem, and so the fine details of PCB
layout and PSU wiring could well have a major effect. (The 100 Hz ripple
amplitude is of course unchanged by the fuse resistance.)
It is thus clear that improving the transmitting end of the problem is likely
to be difficult and expensive, requiring extra-heavy wire, etc. to minimise
the resistance between the reservoirs and the amplifier. It is much cheaper
and easier to attack the receiving end, by improving the power-amp’s PSRR.
The same applies to 100 Hz ripple; the only way to reduce its amplitude is
to increase reservoir capacity, and this is expensive.
A design philosophy for rail rejection
Firstly ensure there is a negligible ripple component in the noise output of
the quiescent amplifier. This should be pretty simple, as the supply ripple
will be minimal; any 50 Hz components are probably due to magnetic
induction from the transformer, and must be removed first by attention to
physical layout.
Secondly, the THD residual is examined under full drive; the ripple
components here are obvious as they slide evilly along the distortion
waveform (assuming that the scope is sync’ed to the test signal). As another
general rule, if an amplifier is made visually free of ripple-synchronous
artefacts on the THD residual, then it will not suffer detectable distortion
from the supply-rails.
PSRR is usually best dealt with by RC filtering in a discrete-component
power amplifier. This will however be ineffective against the sub-50 Hz VLF
signals that result from short-term mains voltage variations being reflected
in the HT rails. A design relying wholly on RC filtering might have low AC
ripple figures, but would show irregular jumps and twitches of the THD
residual; hence the use of constant-current sources in the input tail and VAS
to establish operating conditions more firmly.
The standard op-amp definition of PSRR is the dB loss between each
supply-rail and the effective differential signal at the inputs, giving a figure
independent of closed-loop gain. However, here I use the dB loss between
rail and output, in the usual non-inverting configuration with a C/L gain of
26.4 dB. This is the gain of the amplifier circuit under consideration, and
allows dB figures to be directly related to testgear readings.
244