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155
Supplement 2
Phonetic phenomena
1. Shades of the sonorant [l].
‘Dark’ [l] is pronounced when the sonorant [l] is before a consonant
or in the final position. In such cases the back part of the tongue is
raised high to the soft palate forming an obstruction and giving a dark
colouring to the sound.
Eg:
all, tall, fall, help, salt
‘Light’ or ‘clear’ [l] is pronounced before vowels or the sonorant [j].
Then the front part of the tongue is raised to the soft palate together
with the tip.
Eg.
live, silly, value
2. Aspiration.
Occlusive stops [p, t, k] in the initial position in a stressed syllable are
accompanied with aspiration. Aspiration is a strong puff of breath in
a voiceless interval after the explosion of [p, t, k]. There are three
degrees of aspiration:
1) it is very strong before a long vowel or a diphthong (
port
,
pale
);
2) it is weaker before a short vowel (
pit
);
3) it is less noticeable before an unstressed vowel (
joker
) or in the
final position (
look
).
When [p, t, k] are preceded by [s] (
sky
) or followed by a noise conso-
nant (
looked
), there’s hardly any aspiration at all. For example:
tall,
tale,
till,
baker.
[
t
o:l],
[
t
eıl],
[
t
ıl],
['beı
k
ǩ]
1
1
2
3
3. Loss of plosion.
Occlusive consonants [p, b, t, d, k, g] lose plosion if they are followed
by another occlusive or affricates
[t∫,
ʤ]. The first plosive loses its
156
explosion and becomes unreleased, instead of the release a pause is
heard. They also lose plosion when preceded by [s].
Eg:
and dad
[ǩnd dæd]
, that tape
[ðæt teıp]
, fact
[fækt]
, scale
[skeıl]
4.
Lateral plosion.
A plosive, preceding the lateral sonorant, becomes laterally exploded: it
has the explosion during the pronunciation of the sonorant [l]. The re-
lease before [l] is made by a sudden lowering of the sides of the tongue,
and the air escapes along the lowered sides with lateral plosion.
Eg.
please
[
pl
i:z]
, cattle
[kæ
tl
]
, apple
[‘æ
pl
]
5. Nasal plosion.
When a plosive is followed by the syllabic [m, n], it has no release of
its own, and the so-called nasal plosion is produced. A plosive be-
comes nasally exploded: its explosion is produced during the pronun-
ciation of the sonorant [m] or [n].
Eg.
ha
ppen
[‘hæ
pn
]
, kitten
[‘kı
tn
]
, submarine
[
ı
s
∧
bm
ǩ’ri:n]
6. Assimilation.
The articulation of one sound affects the articulation of the neigh-
bouring one assimilating the latter. There are four types of assimila-
tion:
1) assimilation affecting the direction;
2) assimilation affecting the place of obstruction;
3) assimilation affecting the position of the lips;
4) assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords.
The first type is divided into three subtypes: progressive, regressive,
and double (reciprocal) assimilation.
a) Progressive assimilation happens when the preceding sound af-
fects the articulation of following one, and the preceding sound
remains unchanged. For example:
157
looked,
opened,
cats,
dogs.
→
→
→
→
[lu
kt
],
['ǩup
nd
],
[kæ
ts
],
[dɔ
gz
]
b) Regressive assimilation happens when the following sound af-
fects articulation of the preceding one. For example:
months,
in the,
gooseberry.
←
←
←
[m
∧
nθs
],
[ı
n ð
ǩ],
['gu:
zb
rı]
c) Double assimilation means complex mutual influence of the ad-
jacent sounds. For example:
tree,
try.
↔
↔
[
tr
i:],
[
tr
aı]
7. Wrong assimilation.
Foreign speakers shouldn’t voice the voiceless consonant which is
followed by the voiced one. They correspondingly shouldn’t devoice
the voiced consonant which is followed by the voiceless one. For
example
sit down,
these socks.
[sı
t
d
aun],
[ði:
z
s
Oks]
=
=
=
=
8. Syllabic sonorants.
In unstressed final positions sonorants [l, m, n] become syllabic if
preceded by a noise consonant. For example:
cattle,
sudden,
rhythm.
['kæt
l
],
['s
∧
d
n
],
['rıð
m
]
·
·
·
158
9.
Linking.
Instances of linking occur at word boundaries between two vowels or
a consonant with a following vowel. Here belongs the phenomenon
of linking [r] which reveals its potential pronunciation.
Eg:
this
z
is
z
a boy
;
car
z
owner
,
10. Positional length of vowels.
The length of the vowel depends on its position in the word. In the
same phonetic context the vowel sounds the longest in the final
position, a little bit shorter before a sonorant, still shorter before a
voiced consonant, and the shortest before a voiceless consonant. For
example:
die,
dine,
died,
dike.
[d
aı
],
[d
aı
n],
[d
aı
d],
[d
aı
k]
----
---
--
-
Supplement 3
Stave representation of intonation
The normal range of speaking includes three levels of human voice:
high, medium, and low.
High level
Medium level
Low level
This representation is called ‘a stave’ or ‘a tonogram’. The abstract
notation of intonation is usually presented at the stave with the help of
dots, dashes and upward or downward slash marks, which are put at the
necessary pitch level. Dots
(·) represent unstressed syllables, dashes (─)
represent stressed ones. Slants mark the nucleus.
159
Notional parts of speech (nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, nu-
merals, interrogative and demonstrative pronouns, interjections) are gene-
rally stressed. Functional parts of speech (modal verbs, auxiliary verbs, link
verbs, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, personal and posses-
sive pronouns) are generally unstressed. But all modal and auxiliary verbs
are stressed in the negative form. Sometimes structural parts of speech may
be stressed for additional emphasis and emotional colouring.
There are six main types of nucleus necessary for practical language
learning: Low Fall, Low Rise, High Fall, High Rise, Fall-Rise and Rise-
Fall.
Low Fall starts at the middle and then falls to a very low pitch level.
It is used in statements and special questions.
Eg:
\
No.
Low Rise starts from a very low pitch level and then continues to a
medium one. It is used in general questions and the tags of disjunctive
questions.
Eg:
/
No
.
In High Fall the voice falls all the way down from a higher to a very
low pitch level.
Eg:
\
No
.
In High Rise the voice rises from a medium pitch level and then
moves up to the top.
Eg:
/
No
.