2. Read the following international words and guess what they mean in Russian:

system, criminal, dispute, justice, jurisdiction, determine, nomination, appeal, attract, incredible, debate, media, review, region, bankruptcy, civil, grand jury, start, party, initial, petition, international, contract, private.
3.Translate the following words paying attention to word-building elements:

To establish - establishment; to alter - alternative; function - to function - functionary - functioning; to modify - modification - modifying; crime - criminal - criminalization; dispute - to dispute; tax - to tax - taxation - taxing; appeal - to appeal - appellate; legal - to legalize - legality - legalization; normal - to normalize - normalization; to vary - variable -various; civil - civilian - civilization.
4. Find in the text the following phrases:

Федеральная система; окружной суд; уголовное дело; нарушение федерального закона; судья апелляционного суда; судебный контроль; нижний суд; нарушать конституцию; апелляционный суд; гражданский иск.

TEXT 1

The US Federal Judiciary

The United States is renowned for having one of the most sophisticated judicial systems in the world. Every day thousands of people, including law enforcement officers, lawyers, judges, government officials and even accused criminals, take part in this system, hoping to settle disputes and work for justice. The majority of legal disputes in the U.S. are settled in state courts, but federal courts have considerable power.

The Constitution grants Congress power to create and abolish federal courts. Congress also has the authority to determine the number of judges in the federal judiciary system.

In general, federal courts have jurisdiction over civil actions and criminal cases dealing with federal law.

Federal judges, with a few exceptions, are appointed for life -- until they die, retire or resign.

Appointed by the President, federal judges are confirmed by the Senate and have their pay determined by Congress.

The Supreme Court is the most powerful court in the United States. The Court has nine justices (eight associate justices and one chief justice) and its decisions cannot be appealed to any other court. For that reason, the Supreme Court is an incredibly powerful and important body, and a nomination of a new justice is an event that attracts significant media attention, debate and even controversy.

The Chief Justice is the “executive officer” of the Court but, like the other justices, has only one vote in deciding cases. In order to decide a case, six justices must vote and a simple majority is all that’s required.

There are 12 regional Circuit Court of Appeals and one U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. Each court has the power to review decisions of district courts in its region.

One step below the Court of Appeals is the District Court. Each of the 94 districts has at least two judges; the biggest districts have 24 or more. Each district also has a U.S. bankruptcy court. District Courts are the trial courts of the federal system. Their criminal cases concern federal offenses, and their civil cases deal with matters of federal law or disputes between citizens of different states. They’re also the only federal courts where grand juries indict the accused and juries decide the cases.

Congress determines the court districts based on size, population and case load.

Magistrate Judges are appointed by District Judges to serve an eight-year term in a U.S. District Court. Part-time magistrates serve four-year terms. This system was started in 1968 to help District Courts with their caseloads. Both parties involved in a case have to agree to be heard by a Magistrate Judge instead of a District Judge. Magistrate Judges also conduct initial proceedings for cases such as issuing warrants, bail hearings, appointing attorneys and reviewing petitions and motions.

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Congress has the power to set up special “legislative courts” whose judges are appointed for life terms by the President and approved by the Senate. Today, there are two special trial courts with national jurisdiction.

The U.S. Court of International Trade deals with cases involving international trade and customs.

The U.S. Court of Federal Claims deals with most claims for money damages against the U.S. government, disputes over federal contracts, unlawful seizure of private property by the government and other similar claims.
5. Fill in the correct prepositions:

to take part ____ something	each of them has ____ least two judges
to be renowned ____ something	it cannot be appealed ____ any other court
cases dealing ____ federal law	claims ____ money damages
to have jurisdiction ____ civil actions	claims ____ the U.S. government

6. Match the following:

dispute	a. изменять
to alter	b. спор
judge	c. обязательный
binding	d. судебная система
explicitly	e. судья
judiciary	f. нарушать
to approve	g. ясно
to violate	h. апеллировать (обратиться с апелляцией)
to try	i. одобрять
appeal	j. попытаться

7.Say if the following is true or false.

Useful expressions:

No, it is not true, it’s false. There’s a mistake in this statement. Yes, It is true. I can’t agree. Far from that. It says … … … while it should be … … … .

1. 
   The majority of legal disputes in the U.S. are settled in federal courts.
   
2. 
   Federal courts have jurisdiction over civil actions dealing with federal law.
   
3. 
   In order to decide a case, six justices must vote and a simple majority is all that’s required.
   
4. 
   Circuit Court of Appeals have no right of judicial review.
   
5. 
   Magistrate Judges are appointed by District Judges to serve a ten-year term in a U.S. District Court.
   
6. 
   Federal judges are confirmed by the Senate and have their pay determined by Congress.
   
7. 
   Part-time magistrates serve four-year terms.
   
8. 
   Today, there are three special trial courts with national jurisdiction.
   

8. Fill in the table below.

Noun	Adjective	Verb	Adverb
		reason
privacy
	simple
			specially
		execute
	considerable
system

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9. Match the following words and phrases with their definitions:

1. judge	a. justice of the peace
2. criminal	b. clear and explaining
3. breach	c. to break law
4. civil	d. highest
5. appeal	e. to take a suit to a higher court
6. magistrate	f. violation of law
7. explicit	g. control by judges
8. judicial review	h. as opposite to criminal
9. supreme	i. a person who breaks laws
10. to violate	j. public officer with authority to hear and judge cases

10. Read the text and answer the following questions.

1. Where are the majority of legal disputes in the U.S. settled in?

2. What body has the power to create and abolish federal courts?

3. What is the jurisdiction of federal courts?

4. What is the term of office of federal judges?

5. What is the most powerful court in the United States?

6. How many justices does the Supreme Court have?

7. How many regional Circuit Court of Appeals and U.S. Courts of Appeals for the Federal Circuit are there in the USA?

8. How many District Courts are there in the US?

9. What cases do District Courts deal with?

10. What specialized courts are there in the federal judicial system?
11. Read text 2 for more information about the US court system.

TEXT 2

State Courts and Jury Duty

Although federal courts are the most powerful courts in the United States and play an essential role in shaping judicial policy and practice, state courts do much of the “grunt” work that keeps our judicial system running. They’re also the courts that Americans are most likely to have contact with in their lives.

Most states have two types of trial courts: special jurisdiction and general jurisdiction. Special jurisdiction courts hear many traffic violation cases, minor civil disputes, juvenile cases and lesser criminal cases. They are sometimes called district, justice, county, justice of the peace, magistrate or police courts. General jurisdiction courts hear serious criminal and civil cases. General jurisdiction courts are also called circuit courts, court of common pleas, superior courts or in the state of New York, the Supreme Court. All states also have their own appellate courts and a state supreme court.

State courts have a variety of systems for how judges attain their positions -- some are appointed by governors, others are elected and have to periodically face reelection.

Jury Duty

The U.S. Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals do not use juries. But Federal District Courts, the trial courts of the federal judiciary, do. State trial courts also depend on jurors, who are randomly selected from a pool of registered voters and people with driver’s licenses to ensure a cross-section of the population. Being selected in this way is known as being summoned. A summoned juror must complete a questionnaire to determine if there is any reason that he or she can be disqualified from serving.

A summoned juror won’t automatically have to serve on a jury. However, you he or she will likely have to go to the courthouse and undergo a process called voir dire, where judges and lawyers question potential jurors to determine if they’re fit to serve. People with past experience with the alleged crime, knowledge of either party or who have obvious prejudices may be prevented from serving. Lawyers can also exclude some jurors without giving a reason.

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There are two types of juries on which private citizens may be called to serve. A trial jury, also known as a petit jury, is made up of six to 12 people for a civil trial and 12 people for a criminal trial. A grand jury, as discussed earlier in the article, is a panel of 16 to 23 people who determine whether there’s “probable cause” to charge someone with a crime.

12. Scan the text again and make up an abstract of its key information in Russian (Make use of the information in CONVERSATION AND WRITING Section in this UNIT).
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
1. Translate the following text.

TEXT 3

The Supreme Court of the United States
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the nation. It’s a different kind of appeals court; its major function is not correcting errors made by trial judges, but clarifying the law in cases of national importance or when lower courts disagree about the interpretation of the Constitution or federal laws.

The Supreme Court does not have to hear every case that it is asked to review. Each year, losing parties ask the Supreme Court to review about 8,000 cases. The court selects only about 80 of the most significant cases to review.

The decisions the Supreme Court hands down on these cases set precedents for the interpretation of the Constitution and federal laws, precedents that all other courts, both state and federal, must follow.

The power of judicial review makes the Supreme Court’s role in our government vital. Judicial review is the power of any court, when deciding a case, to declare that a law passed by a legislature or an action of an executive branch officer or employee is invalid because it is inconsistent with the Constitution. Although district courts, courts of appeals, and state courts can exercise the power of judicial review, their decisions about federal law are always subject to review by the Supreme Court on appeal. When the Supreme Court declares a law unconstitutional, however, its decision can only be overruled by a later decision of the Supreme Court or by an amendment to the Constitution. However, most Supreme Court cases don’t concern the constitutionality of laws, but the interpretation of laws passed by Congress.

The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and eight associate justices. Like federal court of appeals and district judges, the justices are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. All nine justices hear every case, and cases are decided by a majority ruling.
2. Make up an abstract of the text in English. Make use of the information in CONVERSATION AND WRITING Section in this UNIT.

TRANSLATION & WRITING PRACTICE

1. Study the following information and make use of it in making up abstracts.

АННОТАЦИЯ

Аннотация (abstract, summary) — это краткое, обобщенное описание (характеристика) текста книги, статьи. При аннотировании материал излагается в предельно сжатой форме.

Специалисты и ученые обязаны уметь писать аннотации к своим научным статьям, докладам для конференций, используемой литературе и т. д.

Описательная аннотация в сжатой и конкретной форме раскрывает сущность содержания и основные выводы аннотируемой публикации. Она состоит обычно из трех частей:

1. Справка к аннотации. В ней указываются следующие данные: автор, название работы на английском языке, перевод названия; количество страниц, таблиц, рисунков, ссылок на использованную литературу; на каком языке написана работа. Кроме того, для журнала – его название на английском языке

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, номер и год издания; для книг, монографий, учебников – название издательства. Эта часть необязательна при аннотировании учебных текстов.

2. Основная часть должна отражать перечень наиболее характерных положений по содержанию работы.

3. Заключительная часть. В этой части должен быть общий вывод автора работы или указание на один какой-то вопрос, которому в работе уделено особое внимание, а также рекомендации, для кого данная работа может представлять особый интерес.

Объем аннотации

Аннотация может быть развернутой или краткой.

Развернутая аннотация, объем которой составляет приблизительно 75 слов, содержит сведения о публикации в более или менее подробном виде. Краткая аннотация состоит из нескольких фраз или слов.

Выбор объема аннотации зависит от ее назначения, от чьего имени ведется изложение (автора или библиографа) и от ее полиграфического оформления. Если аннотация помещается непосредственно перед статьей, в нее не включают библиографические данные.

Язык аннотации

К аннотациям предъявляются следующие требования:

1. Использование простых предложений (глаголы употребляются всегда в настоящем времени в действительном или страдательном залоге.

2. Строгая логическая структура аннотации.

3. Обязательное введение в текст аннотации безличных конструкций, например: «Сообщается», «Подробно описывается» и др., с помощью которых происходит введение и описание текста оригинала.

4. Недопущение повторений в заглавии и тексте аннотации.

5. Использование общепринятых сокращений слов, таких, как напр., и т. д., и т. п., и др.

7. Единство терминов и обозначений.

Текст аннотации должен быть максимально кратким, от 500 до 1000 печатных знаков.

Полезные фразы для подготовки аннотаций:

1. The article (paper, book, etc.) deals with…	1. Эта статья (работа, книга и т. д.) касается…
2. The article describes…	2. В статье описывается…
3. It is specially noted…	3. Особенно отмечается…
4. It is mentioned…	4. Упоминается…
5. It is spoken in detail…	5. Подробно описывается…
6. …are noted	6. Упоминаются…
7. It is reported…	7. Сообщается…
8. The text gives valuable information on…	8. Текст дает ценную информацию…
9. Much attention is given to…	9. Большое внимание уделяется…
10. The article is of great help to …	10. Эта статья окажет большую помощь…
11. The article is of interest to…	11. Эта статья представляет интерес для…
12. It (the article) gives a detailed analysis of …	12. Она (статья) дает детальный анализ…
13. It draws our attention to …	13. Она (статья, работа) привлекает наше внимание к …
14. It should be stressed (emphasized) that …	14. Следует подчеркнуть, что…
16. … is proposed	16. Предлагается…
17. … are examined	17. Рассматриваются…
18. … are discussed	18. Обсуждаются…

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