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Text 4. Elements of Electric and Radio Circuits

An electric circuit is a path along which electricity can flow. An electric circuit consists of a source of energy or power source, a receiver of energy and two conductors connecting the receiver and the power source terminals. The electric source produces the necessary electromotive force (e.m.f.) required for the flow of current through the circuit. The circuit should be complete; otherwise no electric current can flow through it. If the circuit is broken or “opened”, the
Fundamentally, two types of circuits are possible, according to the way in which the circuit elements are joined. To understand the difference between the circuit connections is not difficult. When electrical devices are connected one after another so that the current flows successively through each element, we say they are connected in series. Under such conditions the current flow is the same in all parts of the circuit, as there is only a single path along which it may flow. The electric bell circuit is a typical example of a series circuit.

The parallel circuit provides two or more paths for electric current. The parallel circuit elements are connected side by side¹ in such a way² that the total current flowing through the circuit is the sum of currents flowing through each circuit element individually. The lamps in your room are generally connected in parallel.

Any radio circuit is an electric circuit including radioelements. Radio differs from other means of communication in the means used to connect the transmitting and receiving points. The basic elements of any radio system are a transmitter used for generating radio frequency, a modulator used for impressing intelligence upon the carrier, and a transmitting antenna used for radiating the modulated carrier wave. At the receiving end there must be a receiving antenna, a receiver and a loudspeaker.

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¹ side by side – рядом

² in such a way - таким образом

Text 5. From the History of Electricity

Do you know that the first ever man-made electric light illuminated the laboratory of the St. Petersburg physicist Vasily Petrov in 1802? He had discovered the electric arc, a form of the gas discharge. But in Petorv’s experiments the arc flame lasted for only a short time..

In 1876 Pavel Yablochkov invented an arc that burned like a candle for a long time and it was called “Yablochkov’s candle”. The source of light invented by Yablochkov won worldwide recognition. But while he and several other inventors were improving the arc light, some engineers were working along entirely different lines. They sought to develop an incandescent lamp¹. It was a young Russian engineer, Alexander Lodygin, who made the first successful incandescent lamp. The famous American inventor Thomas Edison improved the lamp having used a carbon filament. But it was again Lodygin who made another important improvement in the

incandescent lamp, having invented a lamp with a tungsten filament, the lamp we use today.

Automation, which is one of the main factors of technical progress today, is impossible without electricity.

Our life cannot be imagined without telephone, telegraph and radio communications. But it is also electricity that gives them life. In recent years electricity has made a great contribution to radio communication between the spaceships and also between the astronauts and the earth.

Little could be done in modern research laboratory without the aid of electricity. Nearly all of the measuring devices used in developing nuclear power for the use of mankind are electrically operated.

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¹ incandescent lamp – лампочка накаливания

Text 6. Radar

The word “radar” is an abbreviation for the phrase “radio detection and ranging’, that is, the use of radio waves to detect the presence and determine the precise position of any stationary or moving object capable of reflecting them. Radio waves can be reflected by large solid objects in much the same manner as light. They are, however, able to travel greater distances than light in the Earth’s atmosphere, because they are not reflected or diffused by small dust particles in the atmosphere. Radar works on the so-called “echo” principle. It sends out radio waves and then measures the amount of time that it takes the waves to return.

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Radar set includes a transmitter and a receiver. If a transmitter sends out a beam of waves, an adjacent receiver operating like a television receiver translates the echoed radio waves into a kind of picture. These radio waves can penetrate clouds and sea depths. They continue to move out in a straight line from a transmitter until they strike something solid. Then they are reflected back. The reflected waves moving back to the radar set are received and translated into a tiny spot on the cathode-ray-tube screen or display. The display may resemble a map of the surroundings and the objects are as bright spots on a dark background.

The most important uses of radar are known to be in ship and air navigation. Radar set on board a ship can provide the captain with complete information about the objects around the ship. It will show the distances and positions of other ships, islands or land so that a safe course can be steered.

There are many types of radar intended for use on ships and planes. The electrical features of radar for use in airplanes are similar to those used on ships. Special types of radar provide air-traffic control, “blond landing” and ground-controlled approach.¹ Radar provides information for meteorology and astronomy, such as detecting meteors and studying cosmic environments.

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¹ ground-controlled approach – наземное управление при заходе на посадку
ТЕКСТЫ

ДЛЯ САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНОЙ РАБОТЫ

ДЛЯ СТУДЕТОВ 2 КУРСА
FROM THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

The introduction of agriculture revolutionized ancient man’s social, economic, and cultural potential. This was the first great step in the evolution of civilization. The more recent Industrial Revolution, vastly increasing man’s productive capabilities, was the next great step and brought forth our present highly mechanized economic and interdependent social civilization.

Nowadays we have another new kind of revolution, based on machines that greatly increase man’s thinking capabilities of planning, analyzing, computing, and controlling. Hundreds of millions of computers are already in daily use penetrating almost all spheres of our modern society, from nuclear energy production and missile design to the processing of bank checks and medical diagnoses.

The development of mechanical calculating machines made the digital computers necessary. An ordinary arithmometer and a desk key calculator have given rise to electronic digital computers. Digital computers came into being in the first half of the 17^th century. Many outstanding Russian and foreign mathematicians of that time created mechanical calculating devices.

The famous Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov compiled a lot of calculating tables and several computing devices concerning different fields of science and engineering.

In 1874 the Russian engineer V.T. Odner invented a special counter wheel¹ named after him the Odner’s wheel, which is used in modern arithmometers and calculators.

P.L. Chebyshev, academician, made a valuable contribution to the field of computing machines. He is known² to have many good ideas in mathematics, some of which have been named after him. For example, the Chebyshev’s polynomials play a unique role in the field of orthogonal functions. In 1878 he constructed an original computing machine, which was exhibited in Paris. In 1882 P.L. Chebyshev invented an arithmometer performing automatically multiplication and division. The automation principle put into this computing machine is still widely used all over the world for developing modern computers.

In 1884 Russia began manufacturing computing machines. During World War I the output of computing machines was stopped but soon it continued.

At the end of the 1930s computing engineering began the new era. There appeared computers operating at high speed. The rapid advance of computers resulted from the success achieved by electronics. There appeared a possibility to solve complex mathematical problems within an unusually short time. Modern engineering enables to do the amount of calculations and researches within a very short period of time, which would have required years of laborious work of large groups of people before³.

The first electronic digital computer was developed in Russia under the supervision of S.A. Lebedev in 1950. Then, in 1953 BESM (High-Speed Electronic Computer) was designed by the Academy of Sciences. This machine could perform about 250 million operations. A human being could do this work during 300 years of continuous labour.

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BESM was followed by a number of large-, medium-, and small-size general and special purpose computers⁴. It was the first generation of computers constructed on electronic tubes.

The second-generation computers were solid-state large-powered machines.

Computers made on integrated circuits containing hundreds of thousands of active electronic devices in tiny elements are of the third and fourth generations.

Computers of the fifth generation contain high-level user interfaces based on VLSI and SLSI⁵, optical fibers, videodisks, and artificial intelligence⁶ approaches for interaction via natural languages, including speech input.

A major advance in the development of computer technologies was the creation of microprocessors and microcomputers. These tiny computer devices are able to control complex operations.

So we see that the significance of the electronic computers invention can be compared with the invention of the steam engine at the end of the 18^th century and the utilization of atomic energy.

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NOTES: ¹a special counter wheel – специальное счетное колесо

² He is known to…. – известно, что он …..

³ which would require years of laborious work of large groups of people before – которые потребовали бы раньше годы трудоемкой работы большой группы людей

⁴ general and special purpose computers – универсальные и специализированные компьютеры

⁵ VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration) – интеграция очень высокого уровня, SLSI (Super Large-Scale Integration) – интеграция сверх высокого уровня

⁶ artificial intelligence - искусственный интеллект

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COMPUTER AS A CONCEPT

In the developed world of the 20^th century, man lives surrounded by a bewildering variety of machines on which his way of life and even life itself depends. These machines can be simple or complex, minute or enormous. Some, like a sewing machine, are for specific applications while other, like electric drill, can be used for a variety of purposes. Some machines, though designed for a specific purpose, are components in many different machines; for instance, the electric motor gives the electric drill its flexibility. This is because the purpose of the motor – to provide power – is fundamental in many applications.

Another fundamental aspect of twentieth-century life is the vast amount and variety of information that surrounds man from media such as the telephone and radio. This has transformed everyday life as much as engines and motors. There are many machines developed to handle the information, for example television cameras to record pictures, transmitters to send these pictures to television receivers in people’s homes.

The ease of using machines also varies and is not always related to their complexity. For example, some, like refrigerators, can work untended, and little skill or training is required to use a television set or a tin-opener; whereas considerable aptitude, instruction and practice is needed to fly an airplane or use a potter’s wheel. The amount of skill and training required might depend on the circumstances of use – driving a motorcar on a country road is a skill relatively easily acquired compared to driving a racing car on a grand prix circuit. Knowledge of the principles behind the operation of a machine may be useful. It is possible to drive a car without knowing anything about what happens under the bonnet, although one can probably drive better for knowing something about mechanics.

Computers are machines, which handle information, and they are based on relatively simple principles. Knowledge of these principles helps one to understand computers and make better use of them.

Computers which deal with numerical information can be divided into three classes: (1) digital, in which the representation of numbers and the calculations on them are performed by counting processes (e.g. by counting teeth on gear wheels or counting electrical impulses); (2) analogue, in which the representation of numbers and the calculations on them are performed my measuring processes (e.g. in electronic computers by measuring voltages); and (3) hybrid, in which both kinds of process are used. Nowadays the word computer, unless qualified, normally means ‘electronic digital computer’; ‘electronic’ because in most computers electronic processes have replaced all others because of their speed, reliability and cheapness, “digital” because the exactness of digital processes implies a greater potential for accuracy.

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THE INTERNET

The Internet, a global computer network that embraces millions of users all over the world, began in the US in 1969 as a military experiment. It was designed to survive a nuclear war. Information sent over the Internet takes the shortest path available from one computer to another. Because of this, any two computers on the Internet will be able to stay in touch with each other as long as there is a single route between them.

Most of the Internet host computers (more than 50%) are in the US, while the rest are located in more than 100 other countries. Although the number of host computers can be counted fairly accurately, nobody knows exactly how many people use the Internet, there are millions, and their number is growing.

The most popular Internet service is e-mail. Most of the people, who have access to the Internet, use the network only for sending and receiving e-mail messages. However, other popular services are available on the Internet: reading USENET News, using the World-Wide Web, telnet, FTP, and Gopher.

In many developing countries the Internet may provide businessmen with a reliable alternative to the expensive and unreliable telecommunication systems of these countries. Commercial users can communicate over the Internet with the rest of the world and can do it very cheaply. When they send e-mail messages, they only have to pay the phones calls to their local service providers, not for calls across their countries or around the world. But who actually pays for sending e-mail messages over the Internet long distances, around the world? The answer is very simple: a used pays his/her service provider a monthly or hourly fee. Part of this fee goes towards its cost to connect to a larger service provider. And part of the fee got by the larger provider goes to cover its cost of running worldwide network of wires and wireless stations.

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But saving money is only the first step. If people see that they can make money from the Internet, commercial use of this network will drastically increase. For example, some western architecture companies and garment centers already transmit their basic designs and concepts over the Internet into China, where they are reworked and refined by skilled – but inexpensive – Chinese computer-aided-design specialists.

However, some problems remain. The most important is security. When you send an e-mail message to somebody, this message can travel through many different networks and computers. The data is constantly being directed towards its destination by special computers called routers. Because of this, it is possible to get into any of computers along the route, intercept and even change the data being sent over the Internet. In spite of the fact that there are many strong encoding programs available, nearly all the information being sent over the Internet is transmitted without any form of encoding, i.e. “in the clear”. But when it becomes necessary to send important information over the network, these encoding programs may be useful. Some American banks and companies even conduct transactions over the Internet. However, there are still both commercial and technical problems, which will take time to be resolved.

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A BOLD PLUNGE INTO THE DIGITAL YOUTH MARKET

Samsung Electronics is keen to make a big splash in the Information Technology (IT) world. It has a number of new digital consumer products and has plans for more. Many of them – incorporating multimedia, Internet and e-mail functions in small portable devices – are aimed at the young, whom the company regards as its market of the new future in the compressed timescale of the Internet age.
Samsung talks enthusiastically about generation Y (the 13 to 25 year-olds) and generation N (Internet consumers). Today’s children, teenagers and students are the customers of the future, says Mt. Chin, chief technology officer and executive vice-president of Samsung Electronics. “When they grow up, they will really use our products. So we are actually searching for the needs, habits and tastes of this younger generation”.

Mr. Chin sees the time when the PC will play a smaller role. “There will be an embedded computer somewhere. Internet connectivity can be achieved with many other products – mobile phones, PDAs (personal digital assistants), digital TVs. Even a microwave oven can be connected to the Internet”.

Among the latest and planned offerings, mostly using Samsung’s digital Smart Media card, area portable digital audio player using MP3 compression technology, as well as one for downloading music and videos; a digital photo album; a web pad for easy Internet and e-mail access; a web video phone, an e-diary with wireless access to the Internet; and the world’s first watch phone. The new products represent, as Mr. Chin says, “a basic shift in strategy, demonstrating our deep conviction that digital connectivity is the future of our industry”.

(Information Technology, Financial Times Review, 2000)

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ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ

Программа и содержание курса …………….…………………..….1 – 11

Контрольное задание № 1 …………………………………………12 – 24

Контрольное задание № 2………………………………………... 25 - 41

Контрольное задание № 3 …………………………………………42 – 62

Контрольное задание № 4………………………………………….63 – 81

Тексты для самостоятельного чтения для 1 курса ……………82 – 87

Тексты для самостоятельного чтения для 2 курса……………….87 - 92

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