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OF ABBREVIATIONS
AE
— American English
Am.
— American
AS.
— Anglo-Saxon
AuE —
Australian English
BE —
British English
Br. —
British
cf.
— compare
Chin. —
Chinese
CnE
— Canadian English
colloq.
— colloquial
Fr.
— French
G.
— German
gen. E.
— general English
Gr. — Greek
It
. — Italian
L. —
Latin
ME. —
Middle English
MnE.
— Modern English
OE. —
Old English
OFr. —
Old French
ON. —
Old Norse
Russ.
— Russian
Scand.
— Scandinavian
Scot. —
Scottish
sl. —
slang
U.S.
— American
I. Introduction
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, the sci-
ence of language. The term Lexi c o l o g y
is composed of two Greek morphemes:
lexis
meaning ‘word, phrase’ (hence
lexicos ‘
having to do with words’) and
logos
which denotes ‘learning, a department of knowledge’. Thus, the lit-
eral meaning of the term L e x i с o l о g у is ‘the science of the word’.
The literal meaning, however, gives only a general notion of the aims and
the subject-matter of this branch of linguistic science, since all its other
branches also take account of words in one way or another approaching
them from different angles. Phonetics, for instance, investigating the pho-
netic structure of language, i.e. its system of phonemes and intonation pat-
terns, is concerned with the study of the outer sound form of the word.
Grammar, which is inseparably bound up with Lexicology, is the study of
the grammatical structure of language. It is concerned with the various
means of expressing grammatical relations between words and with the
patterns after which words are combined into word-groups and sentences.
Lexicology as a branch of linguistics has its own aims and methods of
scientific research, its basic task being a study and systematic description
of vocabulary in respect to its origin, development and current use. Lexi-
cology is concerned with words, variable word-groups, phraseological
units, and with morphemes which make up words.
Distinction is naturally made between General Lexicology and Special
Lexicology. General Lexicology is part of General Linguistics; it is con-
cerned with the study of vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of
any particular language. Special Lexicology is the Lexicology of a particu-
lar language (e.g. English, Russian, etc.), i.e. the study and description of its
vocabulary and vocabulary units, primarily words as the main units of lan-
guage. Needless to say that every Special Lexicology is based on the prin-
ciples worked out and laid down by General Lexicology, a general theory of
vocabulary.
There is also a close relationship between Lexicology and Stylistics or,
to be more exact, L i n g u o - S t y l i s t i c s (Linguistic Stylistics).
Linguo-Stylistics is concerned with the study of the nature, functions and
structure of stylistic devices, on the one hand, and with the investigation
of each style of language, on the other, i.e. with its aim, its structure, its
characteristic features and the effect it produces as well as its interrelation
with the other styles of language.
There are two principal approaches in linguistic
science to the study of language material,
namely the synchronic
(Gr.
syn
— ‘together,
with’ and
chronos
— ‘time’) and the diachronic
(Gr.
dia
— ‘through’)
approach. With regard to S p e c i a l Lexicology the synchronic approach
is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as it exists at a given time,
for instance, at the present time. It is special
7
§ 1. Definition. Links with
Other Branches
of Linguistics
§ 2. Two Approaches to
Language Study
D e s с r i p t i v e L e x i c o l o g y that deals with the vocabulary and
vocabulary units of a particular language at a certain time. A Course in
Modern English Lexicology is therefore a course in Special Descriptive
Lexicology, its object of study being the English vocabulary as it exists at
the present time.
The diachronic approach in terms of Special Lexicology deals with the
changes and the development of vocabulary in the course of time. It is
special Historical Lexicology that deals with the evolution of the vocabu-
lary units of a language as time goes by. An English Historical Lexicology
would be concerned, therefore, with the origin of English vocabulary
units, their change and development, the linguistic and extralinguistic fac-
tors modifying their structure, meaning and usage within the history of the
English language.
It should be emphatically stressed that the distinction between the syn-
chronic and the diachronic study is merely a difference of approach sepa-
rating for the purposes of investigation what in real language is insepara-
ble. The two approaches should not be contrasted, or set one against the
other; in fact, they are intrinsically interconnected and interdependent:
every linguistic structure and system actually exists in a state of constant
development so that the synchronic state of a language system is a result
of a long process of linguistic evolution, of its historical development.
A good example illustrating both the distinction between the two ap-
proaches and their interconnection is furnished by the words to beg and
beggar.
Synchronically, the words to beg and beggar are related as a simple
and a derived word, the noun beggar being the derived member of the pair,
for the derivative correlation between the two is the same as in the case of
to sing — singer, to teach — teacher, etc. When we approach the problem
diachronically, however, we learn that the noun beggar was borrowed
from Old French and only presumed to have been derived from a shorter
word, namely the verb to beg, as in the English language agent nouns are
commonly derived from verbs with the help of the agent suffix -
er
.
Closely connected with Historical Lexicology is Contrastive and Com-
parative Lexicology whose aims are to study the correlation between the
vocabularies of two or more languages, and find out the correspondences
between the vocabulary units of the languages under comparison. Need-
less to say, one can hardly overestimate the importance of Contrastive
Lexicology as well as of Comparative Linguistics in general for the pur-
pose of class-room teaching of foreign languages. Of primary importance
in this respect is the comparison of the foreign language with the mother
tongue.
It is a matter of common knowledge that the
vocabulary of any language is never stable,
never static, but is constantly changing, grow-
ing and decaying. The changes in the vocabulary of a language are due
both to linguistic and extralinguistic causes or to a combination of both.
The extralinguistic causes are determined by the social
8
§ 3. Lexicology and Socio-
linguistics
nature of the language. In this respect there is a tremendous difference be-
tween Lexicology, on the one hand, and Phonology, Morphology and Syn-
tax, on the other. Words, to a far greater degree than sounds, grammatical
forms, or syntactical arrangements, are subject to change, for the word-
stock of a language directly and immediately reacts to changes in social
life, to whatever happens in the life of the speech community in question.
To illustrate the immediate connection between the development of vo-
cabulary and the extra-linguistic causes a few examples will suffice.
The intense development of science and technology has lately given
birth to a great number of new words such as
computer, cyclotron, ra-
dar, psycholinguistics,
etc.; the conquest and research of outer space
started by the Soviet people contributed words like
sputnik, lunokhod,
babymoon, moon-car, spaceship,
etc. It is significant that the suffix
-nik
occurring in the noun
sputnik
is freely applied to new words of various
kinds, e.g.
flopnik, mousenik, woofnik,
etc.
1
The factor of the social need also manifests itself in the mechanism of
word-formation. Among the adjectives with the suffix
-y
derived from
noun stems denoting fabrics (cf.
silky, velvety, woolly,
etc.) the adjective
tweedy
stands out as meaning not merely resembling or like tweed but
rather ‘of sports style’. It is used to describe the type of appearance (or
style of clothes) which is characteristic of a definite social group, namely
people going in for country sports. Thus, the adjective
tweedy
in this
meaning defines a notion which is specific for the speech community in
question and is, therefore, sociolinguistically conditioned.
From the above-adduced examples it follows that in contrast with Pho-
nology, Morphology and Syntax, Lexicology is essentially a sociolinguis-
tic science. The lexicologist should always take into account correlations
between purely linguistic facts and the underlying social facts which
brought them into existence, his research should be based on establishing
scientifically grounded interrelation and points of contact which have
come into existence between the language and the social life of the speech
community in question.
It was pointed out above that Lexicology
studies various lexical units: morphemes,
words, variable word-groups and phraseological units. We proceed from
the assumption that the word is the basic unit of language system, the larg-
est on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic
analysis. The word is a structural and semantic entity within the language
system.
It should be pointed out that there is another approach to the concept of
the basic language unit. The criticism of this viewpoint cannot be dis-
cussed within the framework of the present study. Suffice it to say that
here we consistently proceed from the concept of the word as the basic
unit in all the branches of Lexicology. Both words and phraseological
units are names for things, namely the names of actions, objects, qualities,
etc. Unlike words proper, however, phraseological units are word-
l
See ‘Various aspects...’, § 6, p. 180
9
§ 4. Lexical Units
groups consisting of two or more words whose combination is integrated
as a unit with a specialised meaning of the whole. To illustrate, the lexical
or to be more exact the vocabulary units
tattle, wall, taxi
are words denot-
ing various objects of the outer world; the vocabulary units
black frost,
red tape, a skeleton in the cupboard
are phraseological units: each is a
word-group with a specialised meaning of the whole, namely
black frost
is ‘frost without snow or rime’,
red tape
denotes bureaucratic methods,
a
skeleton in the cupboard
refers to a fact of which a family is ashamed
and which it tries to hide.
Although the ordinary ’speaker is acutely
word-conscious and usually finds no diffi-
culty either in isolating words from an utterance or in identifying them in
the process of communication, the precise linguistic definition of a word is
far from easy to state; no exhaustive definition of the word has yet been
given by linguists.
The word as well as any linguistic sign is a two-facet unit possessing
both form and content or, to be more exact, soundform and meaning. Nei-
ther can exist without the other. For example, [θimbl] is a word within the
framework of the English language primarily because it has the lexical
meaning — ‘a small cap of metal, plastic, etc. worn on the finger in sew-
ing.. .'
1
(Russ. наперсток)
and the grammatical meaning of the Common
case, singular. In other languages it is not a word, but a meaningless
sound-cluster.
When used in actual speech the word undergoes certain modification
and functions in one of its forms.
The system showing a word in all its word-forms is called its para-
digm.
2
The lexical meaning оf а word is the same throughout the para-
digm, i.e. all the word-forms of one and the same word are lexically iden-
tical. The grammatical meaning varies from one form to another (cf.
to
take, takes, took, taking
or
singer, singer’s, singers, singers’).
There-
fore, when we speak of the word
singer
or the word
take
as used in actual
utterances (cf., His brother is a well-known singer
or
I wonder who has
taken my umbrella) we use the term w o r d conventionally, because what
is manifested in the speech event is not the word as a whole but one of its
forms which is identified as belonging to one definite paradigm.
There are two approaches to the paradigm: (a) as a system of forms of
one word it reveals the differences and relationships between them; (b) in
abstraction from concrete words it is treated as a pattern on which every
word of one part of speech models its forms, thus serving to distin-
1
Here and elsewhere definitions of the meanings of words are borrowed from a num-
ber of English explanatory dictionaries, such as the
Concise Oxford Dictionary, Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English by
A. S. Hornby, L., 1974 and others.
2
Each part of speech is characterised by a paradigm of its own. Nouns are declined,
verbs conjugated, qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison. Some adverbs also
have degrees of comparison (e.g.
well, badly,
etc.), others are immutable (e.g.
here, there,
never).
Word-forms constituting a paradigm may be both synthetic and analytic. Unlike
synthetic forms an analytic form is composed of two separate components (cf. (he) takes ...
and (he) has taken ...). In some cases the system of word-forms combines different roots
(cf.
to go
—
went
—
gone; good — better — best).
10
Varieties of Words